Indonesia in Focus: Unfinished journey (40)

Kuntoro Mangkusubroto

Unfinished journey (40)

(Part forty, Depok, West Java, Indonesia, September 5, 2014, 6:48 pm)

One of the Indonesian rescuers spared from the crisis the world, thus becoming one of the seven countries in the world that is safe and protected from the world economic crisis, in addition to Poland, Sweden, South Korea, Turkey, Mexico and Canada thanks to commodity exports coal and tin, in addition to oil palm course (see the unfinished journey 39).

Coal and tin commodity specific role of Company State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) PT Tambang Timah and PT Bukit Asam Coal Mine is quite large. Restructuring and efiesensi both these companies continue to do, especially since its CEO Dr. Kuntoro held.

PT Tambang Timah Kuntoro even downsizing and restructuring of the company from 40,000 employees to just 8,000 people, resulting in the cost of production companies in tap increasingly diminished so that PT Tambang Timah has high competitiveness that makes it has become the number one exporter in the world. Very low cost of production is causing a lot of other companies such as in Thailand and Malaysia closed because of competition with PT Tambang Timah. Now PT Tambang Timah (besides PT Koba Tin) became one of the mainstays in the province of Bangka-Belitung.

Coal Map

Coal

Indonesian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Examples of coal

Coal is a fossil fuel. Understanding generally is a sedimentary rock that can be burned, formed from organic sediment, primarily plant debris and formed through a process pembatubaraan. The main elements consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Coal is also an organic rock that has the physical properties and chemical complex that can be found in various forms.

Elemental analysis gave the empirical formula as C137H97O9NS formula for bituminous and anthracite C240H90O4NS for.

Coal in general [edit | edit source]

Coal Age [edit | edit source]

Coal formation requires certain conditions and only occurs in certain eras in the history of geology. Carboniferous Period, about 340 million years ago (Mya), is the formation of the most productive coal deposits which almost all coal (black coal) that is economical in the northern hemisphere is formed.

In the Permian Period, about 270 Mya, also formed coal deposits are economical in the southern hemisphere, such as Australia, and continue up to the Tertiary Period (70-13 Mya) in various other hemisphere.

Coal-forming materials [edit | edit source]

Almost all of the coal-forming plant origin. The types of coal-forming plants and age according to Diessel (1981) are as follows:

Algae, from Pre-Cambrian Times to the Ordovician and single-celled. Very few coal deposit of this period.

Silofita, from Silurian to Middle Devon, is derived from algae. Little coal deposit of this period.

Pteridofita, age of Upper Devonian to Upper Carboniferous. The main material forming the old Carbon coal in Europe and North America. Plants without flowers and seeds, spores multiply and grow in warm climates.

Gimnospermae, Period period ranging from Permian to Middle Cretaceous. Heterosexual plants, seeds encased in fruit, such as pine, contain levels of sap (resin) high. Type Pteridospermae like gangamopteris and Glossopteris is the main constituent of the Permian coal such as in Australia, India and Africa.

Angiosperms, from the Upper Cretaceous until now. Modern plants, fruit covering the seeds, the male and female in one flower, less gummy than gimnospermae so that, in general, less can be preserved.

Mining [edit | edit source]

Coal mines in Bihar, India.

Coal mining is the mining of coal from the earth. Coal is used as fuel. Coal can also be used to make coke for steel making. [1]

The oldest coal mines located in the Tower Colliery in the UK.

Class and type of coal [edit | edit source]

Based on the rate of formation process which is controlled by pressure, heat and time, coal is generally divided into five classes: anthracite, bituminous, sub-bituminous, lignite and peat.

Anthracite is the highest grade of coal, with glittering black color (luster) metallic, containing between 86% - 98% of the elements carbon (C) with a water content of less than 8%.

Bituminous containing 68-86% carbon element (C) and water content of 8-10% by weight. Grade coal mined in Australia most.

Sub-bituminous contains less carbon and more water, and therefore a source of heat is less efficient compared to bituminous.

Lignite or brown coal is very soft coal containing 35-75% water by weight.

Peat, porous and has a moisture content above 75% and the lowest calorific value.

Coal formation [edit | edit source]

The process of change in plant debris into peat to coal termed pembatu baraan (coalification). In summary there are two stages of the process occurs, namely:

Stage Diagenetik or Biochemistry, begins when the plant material deposited to form lignite. The main agents involved in the process of this change is the water content, degree of oxidation and biological disorder that can cause decay process (decomposition) of organic material and compacting and forming peat.

Metamorphic stages or Geochemistry, covering the process of change from lignite into bituminous and anthracite eventually.

Indonesian coal [edit | edit source]

In Indonesia, coal sludge economic value contained in the Tertiary basin, which is located in the western part Sundas (including Sumatra and Borneo), in general, the economic coal deposit can be classified as Eocene coal or around the Lower Tertiary, approxi- about 45 million years ago, or about the Tertiary and Upper Miocene, approximately 20 million years ago according to the geological time scale.

Coal is formed from peat deposits on ancient climates around the equator is similar to current conditions. Some of them tegolong peat dome formed on the top face of the average ground water in wet climates throughout the year. In other words, this peat domes formed under conditions where inorganic minerals carried by water can get into the system and form a layer of coal ash and low sulfur grade and locally thickened. It is quite common in Miocene coal. In contrast, the Eocene coal sediments are generally thin, high levels of ash and sulfur. Both age coal deposit was formed in lacustrine environments, coastal plain or delta, similar to the formation of peat is happening right now in eastern Sumatra and Kalimantan majority. [2]

Eocene coal deposit [edit | edit source]

This sediment formed in extensional tectonic structure that begins around the Lower Tertiary or Paleogene sediments in the basins in Sumatra and Kalimantan.

The Eocene extension occurs along the banks of the Sunda Shelf, on the west Sulawesi, eastern Borneo, Java Sea to Sumatra. Of sedimentary rocks ever discovered can be seen that the deposition took place began in the Middle Eocene. Expansion of the Lower Tertiary Sundaland this happens to be interpreted in the framework of the arc, which is caused mainly by the motion of the subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate. [3] The early environment of deposition during the Paleogene non-marine, mainly fluviatil, and alluvial fan sediments shallow lakes.

In the southeast part of Kalimantan, coal deposition occurred about Middle Eocene - Upper but in Sumatra younger age, the Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene. In central Sumatra, fluvial sediments which occur in the early phase and then covered by lake deposits (non-marine). [3] In contrast to what happened in the southeastern part of Borneo where fluvial sediment then covered by a layer of coal that occur on the coastal plain then on it are covered by the transgressive Upper Eocene marine sediments. [4]

Eocene coal deposit which has been commonly known to occur in the following basins: Sand and acids (South and East Kalimantan), Barito (South Kalimantan), Kutai Up (Central and East Kalimantan), Melawi and Ketungau (West Kalimantan), Tarakan (East Kalimantan), Ombilin (West Sumatra) and Central Sumatra (Riau).

Below are average quality of some Eocene coal deposit in Indonesia.

Basin mining company total moisture content (% ar) inherent moisture content (% ad) Ash content (% ad) Substance fly (% ad) Sulfur (% ad) energy value (kcal / kg) (ad)

Satui acids PT Arutmin Indonesia 10.00 7.00 8.00 41.50 0.80 6800

Senakin Sand PT Arutmin Indonesia 9.00 4.00 15.00 39.50 0.70 6400

Petangis Sand PT BHP Coal Kendilo 11.00 4.40 12.00 40.50 0.80 6700

Ombilin Ombilin PT Bukit Asam 12:00 6:50 <8:00 0:50 36.50 - 0.60 6900

Parambahan Ombilin PT Allied Indo Coal 4:00 to 10:00 (ar) 37.30 (ar) 0:50 (ar) 6900 (ar)

(ar) - as received, (ad) - the water dried, Source: Indonesian Coal Mining Association, 1998

Miocene coal deposit [edit | edit source]

In the Early Miocene, Lower Tertiary regional division - Central in Sundaland has ended. In the Oligocene to Early Miocene Kala these marine transgression occurred in the large region where marine clastic sediments deposited thick sequences of limestones perselingan. Appointment and compression are common in tectonic appearance Neogen in Borneo and Sumatra. Miocene coal deposit which is economical mainly located in the lower part of the Kutai Basin (East Kalimantan), Barito Basin (South Kalimantan) and southern Sumatra Basin. Miocene coal also economically mined in Bengkulu Basin.

Coal is generally deposited in fluvial environments, delta and coastal plains are similar to the current peat formation in eastern Sumatra. The other main characteristic is the ash content and low sulfur. But mostly Miocene coal resources are classified as sub-bituminous or lignite thus less economical unless it is very thick (PT Adaro) or advantageous geographical location. However Miocene coal in some locations is also quite high grade deposits such as Penang and Prima (PT KPC), coal sludge around downstream Mahakam River, East Kalimantan and several locations near Tanjungenim, southern Sumatra Basin.

The table below shows the average quality of some Miocene coal deposit in Indonesia.

Basin mining company total moisture content (% ar) inherent moisture content (% ad) Ash content (% ad) Substance fly (% ad) Sulfur (% ad) energy value (kcal / kg) (ad)

Kutai Prima PT Kaltim Prima Coal 9:00 to 4:00 0:50 39.00 6800 (ar)

Kutai Pinang PT Kaltim Prima Coal 13:00 to 7:00 0:40 37.50 6200 (ar)

Roto South Sand PT Kideco Jaya Agung 24.00 - 40.00 3:00 0:20 5200 (ar)

Binungan Tarakan PT Berau Coal 18.00 14.00 4.20 40.10 0.50 6100 (ad)

Lati Tarakan PT Berau Coal 24.60 16.00 4.30 37.80 0.90 5800 (ad)

Air Laya southern Sumatra, PT Bukit Asam 24.00 - 34.60 5:30 0:49 5300 (ad)

Barito Paringin PT Adaro 24.00 18.00 4.00 40.00 0.10 5950 (ad)

(ar) - as received, (ad) - the water dried, Source: Indonesian Coal Mining Association, 1998

Coal resources [edit | edit source]

Charging of coal into barges.

Potential coal resources in Indonesia are very abundant, especially on the island of Borneo and Sumatra, while in other regions can be found in coal, although small amounts and can not be determined keekonomisannya, such as West Java, Central Java, Papua, and Sulawesi.

The National Geological Agency estimates that Indonesia still has 160 billion tons of coal reserves which have not been explored. The reserves are mostly located in East Kalimantan and South Sumatra. However, exploration efforts are often hampered coal mine land status. Areas where coal reserves are mostly located in forest conservation. [5] The average production of coal mining in Indonesia reached 300 million tons per year. Of that amount, about 10 percent is used for domestic energy needs, and most of the rest (90 percent) is exported to the outside.

In Indonesia, coal is the primary fuel other than diesel fuel (diesel fuel) which has been commonly used in many industries, from coal economically much more efficient than diesel, with a ratio as follows: Solar Rp 0.74 / kilocalories while coal only USD 0.09 / kilocalories, (based on the price of industrial diesel to Rp. 6,200 / liter).

In terms of the quantity of coal including the most important fossil energy reserves for Indonesia. The numbers are very abundant, reaching tens of billions ton. This amount is actually sufficient to supply the electrical energy needs of up to hundreds of years into the future. Unfortunately, Indonesia is not likely burn down coal and convert it into electricity through the energetic power plant. In addition to polluting the environment through pollutant CO2, SO2, NOx and CxHy this way is inefficient and less high added value.

Coal should not be directly burned, will be more meaningful and efficient if it is converted into a synthetic gas, or other petrochemical materials of high economic value. Two ways are considered in this case is liquefaction (liquefaction) and gasification (sublimation) coal.

Burning coal directly (direct burning) has developed the technology continue, which aims to achieve maximum efficiency of combustion, direct combustion methods such as: fixed grate, chain grate, fluidized bed, pulverized, and others, each has advantages and disadvantages.

Coal gasification [edit | edit source]

Coal gasification is a process to convert solid coal into coal gas is flammable (combustible gases), after the purification process gases is carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H), methane (CH4) , and nitrogen (N2) - can be used as fuel. using only air and water vapor as reacting gases then produce water-gas or coal gas, gasification actually have this level of air emissions, solid waste and waste rock bottom.

However, coal is not a perfect fuel. Tied in it is sulfur and nitrogen, when coal is burned impurities will be released into the air, floating in the air when these chemicals can combine with water vapor (such as fog example) and droplets that fall to the ground as bad form sulfuric acid and nitrite, referred to as "acid rain" "acid rain". Here also there is a small mineral stains, including common dirt mixed with coal, these tiny particles do not burn and create dust that remains in the coal combustor, a couple of small particles is also caught in the round of combustion gases along with water vapor, from the smoke coming out of the chimney few small particles are very small as a human hair.

How to make clean coal [edit | edit source]

There are several ways to clean coal. Examples of sulfur, sulfur is a chemical substance that is slightly yellowish in coal, in some coal found in Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and other eastern states, sulfur consists of 3 to 10% of the weight of coal, some coal found in Wyoming, Montana and the states of the other west of sulfur is only about 1 / 100ths (less than 1%) of the weight of coal. It is important that most of the sulfur is removed before reaching the chimney.

One way to clean coal is the easy way to break up the lumps of coal and a smaller wash. Some sulfur is present as tiny specks in coal called "pyritic sulfur" because it is combined with iron into a form of iron pyrite, otherwise known as "fool's gold" can be separated from the coal. Specifically, in the one-time, lump of coal put in a large tank filled with water, coal float to the surface when the sulfur impurities sink. washing facility is called "coal preparation plants" that clean the impurities from the coal-impurities.

Not all of the sulfur can be cleaned in this way, however, the sulfur in the coal is actually chemically bonded to the carbon molecule, sulfur type is called "organic sulfur," and washing will not eliminate it. Several processes have been tried to mix the coal with chemicals that release sulfur molecules away from coal, but most of these processes have proven too expensive, scientists are still working to reduce the cost of this process is the chemical leaching.

Most modern power plant and all facilities built after 1978 - have been required to have a special tool that is installed to dispose of sulfur from the gases of burning coal gas before it is up to the chimney. This tool is actually a "flue gas desulfurization units," but many people called "scrubbers" - because they are men-scrub (scrubbing) of sulfur out of smoke released by coal-burning stove.

Disposing of NOx from coal [edit | edit source]

Nitrogen in general is a major part of the air we breathe, in fact 80% of air is nitrogen, normally floating nitrogen atoms bound to each other like chemical couples, but when the air is heated as in the boiler flame (3000 F = 1648 C), the nitrogen atom is split and bound with oxygen, it forms as nitrogen oxides or sometimes it is referred to as NOx. NOx can also be formed from a nitrogen atom which is trapped in the coal.

In the air, NOx is a pollutant that can cause a hazy brown haze sometimes seen around the major cities, as well as pollution that forms "acid rain" (acid rain), and may help the formation of something called "ground level ozone", type another of the pollution that can make the air dirty.

One of the best ways to reduce NOx formation is avoided from its origin, some have found a way to burn coal in pemabakar where there is more fuel than air in the combustion chamber is the hottest. Under these conditions most of the oxygen were combined with fuel than with nitrogen. The burning mixture is then sent to a second combustion chamber where there is a similar process repeated until all the fuel is completely burned. This concept is called "staged combustion" because coal is burned in stages. Sometimes referred to as "low-NOx burners" and has been developed so as to reduce NOx kangdungan uadara released in more than half. There is also a new technology that works like a "scubbers" which cleans NOX from flue gases (smoke) of coal-fired boilers. Some of these devices use special chemicals called catalysts that break down the NOx into non-polluting gases, although it is more expensive than the "low-NOx burners," but it can hit more than 90% NOx pollution.

World coal reserves [edit | edit source]

Coal regions in the United States

In 1996 there were estimated around one exagram (1 × 1015 kg or 1 billion tons) of total coal that can be mined using current mining technology, an estimated half of hard coal. Energy value of all the world's coal is 290 zettajoules. [6] With the current global consumption is 15 terawatt, [7] there is enough coal to provide energy for the entire world for 600 years.

British Petroleum, the Annual Report 2006, estimates that by the end of 2005, there were 909,064 million tons of coal reserves are proven world (9.236 × 1014 kg), or enough for 155 years (reserve to production ratio). This figure is only classified as proved reserves, exploration drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in the areas under exploration, continues to provide new reserves.

United States Department of Energy estimates that coal reserves in the United States approximately 1,081,279 million tons (9.81 × 1014 kg), which is equivalent to 4,786 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent). [8]

World coal reserves at the end of 2005 (in million tonnes) [9] [10] [11] [12]

Bituminous countries (including anthracite) Sub-bituminous Lignite TOTAL

United States 115,891 101,021 33,082 249,994

Russia 49,088 97,472 10,450 157,010

China 62,200 33,700 18,600 114,500

India 82 396 2,000 84 396

Australia 42,550 1,840 37,700 82,090

Germany 23,000 43,000 66,000

South Africa 49 520 49 520

Ukraine 16,274 15,946 1,933 34,153

Kazakhstan 31,000 3,000 34,000

Poland 20,300 1,860 22,160

Serbia and Montenegro 64 1,460 14 732 16 256

Brazil 11 929 11 929

Colombia 6267 381 6648

Canada 3,471 871 2,236 6,578

Republic 2,114 3,414 150 5,678

Indonesia 790 1,430 3,150 5,370

Botswana 4,300 4,300

Uzbekistan 1,000 3,000 4,000

Turkey 278 761 2,650 3,689

Greece 2,874 2,874

Bulgaria 13 233 2,465 2,711

Pakistan 2,265 2,265

Iran 1,710 1,710

United Kingdom 1000 500 1500

Romania 1 35 1,421 1,457

Thailand 1,268 1,268

Mexico 860 300 51 1,211

Chile 31 1,150 1,181

Hungary 80 1,017 1,097

Peru 960 100 1060

Kyrgyz 812 812

Japan 773 773

Spain 200 400 60 660

North Korea 300 300 600

New Zealand 33,206,333,572

Zimbabwe 502 502

Netherlands 497 497

Venezuela 479 479

Argentina 430 430

Philippines 232 100 332

Slovenia 40,235,275

Mozambique 212 212

Swaziland 208 208

Tanzania 200 200

Nigeria 21,169,190

Greenland 183 183

Slovakia 172 172

Vietnam 150 150

Republic of Congo 88 88

South Korea 78 78

Niger 70 70

Afghanistan 66 66

Algeria 40 40

Croatia 6 33 39

Portugal 3 33 36

France 22 14 36

Italy 27 7 34

Austria 25 25

24 Ecuador 24

Egypt 22 22

Ireland 14 14

Zambia 10 10

Malaysia 4 4

Central African Republic 3 3

Myanmar 2 2

Malawi 2 2

New Caledonia 2 2

Nepal 2 2

Bolivia 1 1

Norway 1 1

Taiwan 1 1

Sweden 1 1

Major coal exporting countries [edit | edit source]

Exporting coal by country and year

(in million tonnes) [13]

State 2003 2004

Australia 238.1 247.6

United States 43.0 48.0

South Africa 78.7 74.9

Soviet Union 41.0 55.7

Poland 16.4 16.3

Canada 27.7 28.8

China 103.4 95.5

South America 57.8 65.9

Indonesia 200.8 131.4

Total 713.9 764.0

See also [edit | edit source]

Tin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Tin (disambiguation).

Tin 50Sn

General properties

Name, symbol

tin, Sn

Pronunciation /ˈtɪn/

TIN

Appearance silvery (left, beta, β) or gray (right, alpha, α)

Tin in the periodic table

Coal Mining

↑

↓

indium ← tin → antimony

Atomic number

Standard atomic weight

118.710(7)

Element category

post-transition metal

Group, period,block

group 14 (carbon group),period 5, p-block

Electron configuration

[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2

per shell: 2, 8, 18, 18, 4

Physical properties

Phase

solid

Melting point

505.08 K (231.93 °C, 449.47 °F)

Boiling point

2875 K (2602 °C, 4716 °F)

Density(near r.t.)

white, β: 7.365 g•cm−3(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa)

gray, α: 5.769 g•cm−3

Liquid density at m.p.: 6.99 g•cm−3

Heat of fusion

white, β: 7.03 kJ•mol−1

Heat of vaporization

white, β: 296.1 kJ•mol−1

Molar heat capacity

white, β: 27.112 J•mol−1•K−1

Vapor pressure

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 1497 1657 1855 2107 2438 2893

Atomic properties

Oxidation states

4, 3,[1] 2, 1,[2] −4 (anamphoteric oxide)

Electronegativity

1.96 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies

1st: 708.6 kJ•mol−1

2nd: 1411.8 kJ•mol−1

3rd: 2943.0 kJ•mol−1

Atomic radius

empirical: 140 pm

Covalent radius

139±4 pm

Van der Waals radius

217 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure

tetragonal

white (β)

Crystal structure diamond cubic

gray (α)

Speed of sound

thin rod: 2730 m•s−1 (at r.t.) (rolled)

Thermal expansion

22.0 µm•m−1•K−1 (at 25 °C)

Thermal conductivity

66.8 W•m−1•K−1

Electrical resistivity

at 0 °C: 115 nΩ•m

Magnetic ordering

gray: diamagnetic[3]

white (β): paramagnetic

Young's modulus

50 GPa

Shear modulus

18 GPa

Bulk modulus

58 GPa

Poisson ratio

0.36

Mohs hardness

1.5

Brinell hardness

~350 MPa

CAS Number

7440-31-5

History

Discovery

around 3500 BC

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of tin

iso

half-life

DE(MeV)

112Sn 0.97% - (β+β+)

1.9222 112Cd

114Sn 0.66% - (SF)

<27.965

115Sn 0.34% - (SF)

<26.791

116Sn 14.54% - (SF)

<25.905

117Sn 7.68% - (SF)

<25.334

118Sn 24.22% - (SF)

<23.815

119Sn 8.59% - (SF)

<23.140

120Sn 32.58% - (SF)

<21.824

122Sn 4.63% - (β−β−)

0.3661 122Te

124Sn 5.79% >1×1017y (β−β−)

2.2870 124Te

126Sn trace

2.3×105y

β−

0.380 + 126Sb

Decay modes in parentheses are predicted, but have not yet been observed

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Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (for Latin: stannum) and atomic number 50. It is a main group metal in group 14 of theperiodic table. Tin shows chemical similarity to both neighboring group-14 elements, germanium and lead, and has two possibleoxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes in the periodic table. Tin is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite, where it occurs as tin dioxide, SnO2.

This silvery, malleable other metal is not easily oxidized in air and is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion. The first alloy, used in large scale since 3000 BC, was bronze, an alloy of tin and copper. After 600 BC pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter, which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead, was used for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times tin is used in many alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders, typically containing 60% or more of tin. Another large application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated metal is also used for food packaging, giving the name to tin cans, which are made mostly of steel.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Characteristics

o 1.1 Physical properties

o 1.2 Chemical properties

o 1.3 Isotopes

• 2 Etymology

• 3 History

• 4 Compounds and chemistry

o 4.1 Inorganic compounds

o 4.2 Hydrides

o 4.3 Organotin compounds

• 5 Occurrence

• 6 Production

o 6.1 Mining and smelting

o 6.2 Industry

• 7 Price and exchanges

o 7.1 Price of Tin in USD cents per kg

• 8 Applications

o 8.1 Solder

o 8.2 Tin plating

o 8.3 Specialized alloys

o 8.4 Other applications

o 8.5 Organotin compounds

 8.5.1 PVC stabilizers

 8.5.2 Biocides

 8.5.3 Organic chemistry

 8.5.4 Li-ion batteries

• 9 Precautions

• 10 See also

• 11 Notes

• 12 References

• 13 Bibliography

• 14 External links

Characteristics[edit]

Physical properties[edit]

Droplet of solidified molten tin

Tin is a malleable, ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal. When a bar of tin is bent, a crackling sound known as the tin cry can be heard due to the twinning of

the crystals

.[4] Tin melts at a low temperature of about 232 °C (450 °F), which is further reduced to 177.3 °C (351.1 °F) for 11-nm particles.[5]

β-tin (the metallic form, or white tin), which is stable at and above room temperature, is malleable. In contrast, α-tin (nonmetallic form, or gray tin), which is stable below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), is brittle. α-tin has a diamond cubic crystal structure, similar to diamond, silicon orgermanium. α-tin has no metallic properties at all because its atoms form a covalent structure where electrons cannot move freely. It is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses, other than a few specialized semiconductor applications.[4] These two allotropes, α-tin and β-tin, are more commonly known as gray tin and white tin, respectively. Two more allotropes, γ and σ, exist at temperatures above 161 °C (322 °F) and pressures above several GPa.[6] In cold conditions, β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin, a phenomenon known as "tin pest".[7] Although the α-β transformation temperature is nominally 13.2 °C (55.8 °F), impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower the transition temperature well below 0 °C (32 °F), and upon addition of Sb or Bi the transformation may not occur at all, increasing the durability of the tin.[8]

Commercial grades of tin (99.8%) resist transformation because of the inhibiting effect of the small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead and silver present as impurities. Alloying elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium and silver increase its hardness. Tin tends rather easily to form hard, brittle intermetallic phases, which are often undesirable. It does not form wide solid solution ranges in other metals in general, and there are few elements that have appreciable solid solubility in tin. Simple eutectic systems, however, occur with bismuth, gallium, lead, thallium and zinc.[8]

Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72 K.[9] In fact, tin was one of the first superconductors to be studied; the Meissner effect, one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals.[10]

Chemical properties[edit]

Tin resists corrosion from water but can be attacked by acids and alkalis. Tin can be highly polished and is used as a protective coat for other metals.[4] In this case the formation of a protective oxide layer is used to prevent further oxidation. This oxide layer forms on pewter and other tin alloys.[11] Tin acts as a catalyst when oxygen is in solution and helps accelerate chemical attack.[4]

Isotopes[edit]

Main article: Isotopes of tin

Tin is the element with the greatest number of stable isotopes, ten, being those with atomic masses of 112, 114 to 120, 122 and 124. Of these, the most abundant ones are 120Sn (at almost a third of all tin), 118Sn, and 116Sn, while the least abundant one is 115Sn. The isotopes possessing even mass numbers have no nuclear spin while the odd ones have a spin of +1/2. Tin, with its three common isotopes 116Sn, 118Sn and 120Sn, is among the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR spectroscopy, and its chemical shiftsare referenced against SnMe

4.[note 1][12]

This large number of stable isotopes is thought to be a direct result of tin possessing an atomic number of 50, which is a "magic number" in nuclear physics. There are 28 additional unstable isotopes that are known, encompassing all the remaining ones with atomic masses between 99 and 137. Aside from 126Sn, which has a half-life of 230,000 years, all the radioactive isotopes have a half-life of less than a year. The radioactive 100Sn is one of the few nuclides possessing a "doubly magic" nucleus and was discovered relatively recently, in 1994.[13] Another 30 metastable isomers have been characterized for isotopes between 111 and 131, the most stable of which being 121mSn, with a half-life of 43.9 years.

Etymology[edit]

The word tin is shared among Germanic languages and can be traced back to reconstructed Proto-Germanic *tin-om; cognatesinclude German Zinn, Swedish tenn and Dutch tin. It is not found in other branches of Indo-European, except by borrowing from Germanic (e.g. Irish tinne from English).[14][15]

The Latin name stannum originally meant an alloy of silver and lead, and came to mean 'tin' in the 4th century BCE[16]—the earlier Latin word for it was plumbum candidum 'white lead'. Stannum apparently came from an earlier stāgnum (meaning the same substance),[14] the origin of the Romance and Celtic terms for 'tin'.[14][17] The origin of stannum/stāgnum is unknown; it may be pre-Indo-European.[18] The Meyers Konversationslexikon speculates on the contrary that stannum is derived from (the ancestor of)Cornish stean, and is proof that Cornwall in the first centuries AD was the main source of tin.

History[edit]

Main article: Tin sources and trade in ancient times

Ceremonial giant bronze dirk of the Plougrescant-Ommerschans type, Plougrescant, France, 1500–1300 BC.

Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginnings of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC, when it was observed that copper objects formed of polymetallic ores with different metal contents had different physical properties.[19] The earliest bronze objects had tin or arsenic content of less than 2% and are therefore believed to be the result of unintentional alloying due to trace metal content in the copper ore.[20] The addition of a second metal to copper increases its hardness, lowers the melting temperature, and improves the casting process by producing a more fluid melt that cools to a denser, less spongy metal.[20] This was an important innovation that allowed for the much more complex shapes cast in closed moulds of the Bronze Age. Arsenical bronze objects appear first in the Near East where arsenic is commonly found in association with copper ore, but the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age.[21] This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed a trade network that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age cultures.[citation needed]

Cassiterite (SnO2), the tin oxide form of tin, was most likely the original source of tin in ancient times. Other forms of tin ores are less abundant sulfides such as stannite that require a more involved smelting process. Cassiterite often accumulates in alluvial channels asplacer deposits due to the fact that it is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the granite in which it typically forms.[22] These deposits can be easily seen in river banks as cassiterite is usually black, purple or otherwise dark in color, a feature exploited by early Bronze Age prospectors. It is likely that the earliest deposits were alluvial in nature, and perhaps exploited by the same methods used for panninggold in placer deposits.[citation needed]

Compounds and chemistry[edit]

See also Category:Tin minerals.

Sample of cassiterite, the mainore of tin.

Granular pieces of cassiterite, which are collected by placer mining

Tin is generated via the long S-process in low-to-medium mass stars (with masses of 0.6 to 10 times that of Sun). It arises via beta decay of heavy isotopes of indium.[32]

Tin is the 49th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, representing 2 ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for lead.[33]

Tin does not occur as the native element but must be extracted from various ores. Cassiterite (SnO2) is the only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite, franckeite, canfieldite, and teallite. Minerals with tin are almost always associated with granite rock, usually at a level of 1% tin oxide content.[34]

Because of the higher specific gravity of tin dioxide, about 80% of mined tin is from secondary deposits found downstream from the primary lodes. Tin is often recovered from granules washed downstream in the past and deposited in valleys or under sea. The most economical ways of mining tin are through dredging, hydraulic methods or open cast mining. Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which may contain as little as 0.015% tin.[35]

World tin mine reserves (tonnes, 2011)[36]

Country Reserves

China

1,500,000

Malaysia

250,000

Peru

310,000

Indonesia

800,000

Brazil

590,000

Bolivia

400,000

Russia

350,000

Thailand

170,000

Australia

180,000

Other 180,000

Total 4,800,000

About 253,000 tonnes of tin have been mined in 2011, mostly in China (110,000 t), Indonesia (51,000 t), Peru (34,600 t), Bolivia (20,700 t) and Brazil (12,000 t).[36] Estimates of tin production have historically varied with the dynamics of economic feasibility and the development of mining technologies, but it is estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies, the Earth will run out of tin that can be mined in 40 years.[37] However Lester Brown has suggested tin could run out within 20 years based on an extremely conservative extrapolation of 2% growth per year.[38]

Economically recoverable tin reserves[34]

Year Million tonnes

1965 4,265

1970 3,930

1975 9,060

1980 9,100

1985 3,060

1990 7,100

2000 7,100[36]

2010 5,200[36]

Secondary, or scrap, tin is also an important source of the metal. The recovery of tin through secondary production, or recycling of scrap tin, is increasing rapidly. Whereas the United States has neither mined since 1993 nor smelted tin since 1989, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tonnes in 2006.[36]

New deposits are reported to be in southern Mongolia,[39] and in 2009, new deposits of tin were discovered in Colombia, by the Seminole Group Colombia CI, SAS.[40]

Production[edit]

Tin is produced by carbothermic reduction of the oxide ore with carbon or coke. Both reverberatory furnace and electric furnacecan be used.[41][42][43]

Mining and smelting[edit]

Main article: Tin mining

Tin

Industry[edit]

Candlestick made of tin

The ten largest companies produced most of the world's tin in 2007. It is not clear which of these companies include tin smelted from the mine at Bisie, Democratic Republic of the Congo, which is controlled by a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tonnes. Most of the world's tin is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME), from 8 countries, under 17 brands.[44]

Largest tin producing companies (tonnes)[45]

Company Polity 2006 2007 %Change

Yunnan Tin

China 52,339 61,129 16.7

PT Timah Indonesia 44,689 58,325 30.5

Minsur Peru 40,977 35,940 −12.3

Malay China 52,339 61,129 16.7

Malaysia Smelting Corp Malaysia 22,850 25,471 11.5

Thaisarco Thailand 27,828 19,826 −28.8

Yunnan Chengfeng China 21,765 18,000 −17.8

Liuzhou China Tin China 13,499 13,193 −2.3

EM Vinto Bolivia 11,804 9,448 −20.0

Gold Bell Group China 4,696 8,000 70.9

Price and exchanges[edit]

World production and price (US exchange) of tin.

Tin is unique among other mineral commodities by the complex "agreements" between producer countries and consumer countries dating back to 1921. The earlier agreements tended to be somewhat informal and sporadic; they led to the "First International Tin Agreement" in 1956, the first of a continuously numbered series that essentially collapsed in 1985. Through this series of agreements, the International Tin Council (ITC) had a considerable effect on tin prices. The ITC supported the price of tin during periods of low prices by buying tin for its buffer stockpile and was able to restrain the price during periods of high prices by selling tin from the stockpile. This was an anti-free-market approach, designed to assure a sufficient flow of tin to consumer countries and a decent profit for producer countries. However, the buffer stockpile was not sufficiently large, and during most of those 29 years tin prices rose, sometimes sharply, especially from 1973 through 1980 when rampant inflation plagued many world economies.[46]

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. Government tin stockpile was in an aggressive selling mode, partly to take advantage of the historically high tin prices. The sharp recession of 1981–82 proved to be quite harsh on the tin industry. Tin consumption declined dramatically. The ITC was able to avoid truly steep declines through accelerated buying for its buffer stockpile; this activity required the ITC to borrow extensively from banks and metal trading firms to augment its resources. The ITC continued to borrow until late 1985, when it reached its credit limit. Immediately, a major "tin crisis" followed — tin was delisted from trading on the London Metal Exchange for about 3 years, the ITC dissolved soon afterward, and the price of tin, now in a free-market environment, plummeted sharply to $4 per pound and remained around this level through 1990s.[46] It increased again by 2010 due to rebound in consumption following the 2008–09 world economic crisis, restocking and continued growth in consumption in the world's developing economies.[36]

London Metal Exchange (LME) is the principal trading site for tin.[36] Other tin contract markets are Kuala Lumpur Tin Market (KLTM) and Indonesia Tin Exchange (INATIN).[47]

Price of Tin in USD cents per kg[edit]

Tin (USD cents per kg)

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Price 1,851 1,357 2,041 2,605 2,113

Source:Helgi Library [48]

Applications[edit]

World consumption of refined tin by end use, 2006

In 2006, about half of tin produced was used in solder. The rest was divided between tin plating, tin chemicals, brass and bronze, and niche uses.[49]

Solder[edit]

A coil of lead-free solder wire

Tin has long been used as a solder in the form of an alloy with lead, tin accounting for 5 to 70% w/w. Tin forms a eutectic mixture with lead containing 63% tin and 37% lead. Such solders are primarily used for solders for joining pipes or electric circuits. Since the European UnionWaste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) and Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive came into effect on 1 July 2006, the use of lead in such alloys has decreased. Replacing lead has many problems, including a higher melting point, and the formation of tin whiskers causing electrical problems. Tin pest can occur in lead-free solders, leading to loss of the soldered joint. Replacement alloys are rapidly being found, although problems of joint integrity remain.[50]

Tin plating[edit]

Tin bonds readily to iron and is used for coating lead or zinc and steel to prevent corrosion. Tin-plated steel containers are widely used for food preservation, and this forms a large part of the market for metallic tin. A tinplate canister for preserving food was first manufactured in London in 1812.[51] Speakers of British English call them "tins", while speakers of American English call them "cans" or "tin cans". One thus-derived use of the slang term "tinnie" or "tinny" means "can of beer". The tin whistle is so called because it was first mass-produced in tin-plated steel.[52][53]

Specialized alloys[edit]

Pewter plate

Tin in combination with other elements forms a wide variety of useful alloys. Tin is most commonly alloyed with copper. Pewter is 85–99% tin;[54] Bearing metal has a high percentage of tin as well.[55][56]Bronze is mostly copper (12% tin), while addition of phosphorus gives phosphor bronze. Bell metal is also a copper-tin alloy, containing 22% tin. Tin has also sometimes been used in coinage; for example, it once formed a single-digit figure percentage (usually five percent or less) of the American[57] and Canadian[58] pennies. Because copper is often the major metal in such coins, and zinc is sometimes present as well, these could technically be called bronze and/or brass alloys.

Tin plated metal from can

Artisan Alfonso Santiago Leyva and his son working tin sheets

The niobium-tin compound Nb3Sn is commercially used as wires for superconducting magnets, due to the material's high critical temperature(18 K) and critical magnetic field (25 T). A superconducting magnet weighing as little as two kilograms is capable of producing magnetic fields comparable to a conventional electromagnet weighing tons.[59]

The addition of a few percent of tin is commonly used in zirconium alloys for the cladding of nuclear fuel.[60]

Most metal pipes in a pipe organ are made of varying amounts of a tin/lead alloy, with 50%/50% being the most common. The amount of tin in the pipe defines the pipe's tone,

since tin is the most tonally resonant of all metals.[dubious – discuss] When a tin/lead alloy cools, the lead cools slightly faster and produces a mottled or spotted effect. This metal alloy is referred to as spotted metal. Major advantages of using tin for pipes include its appearance, its workability, and resistance to corrosion.[61][62]

Other applications[edit]

A 21st-century reproduction barn lantern made of punched tin.

Punched tin- plated steel, also called pierced tin, is an artisan technique originating in central Europe for creating housewares that are both functional and decorative. Decorative piercing designs exist in a wide variety, based on geography or the artisan's personal creations. Punched tin lanterns are the most common application of this artisan technique. The light of a candle shining through the pierced design creates a decorative light pattern in the room where it sits. Punched tin lanterns and other punched tin articles were created in the New World from the earliest European settlement. A well-known example is the Revere type lantern, named after Paul Revere.[63]

Before the modern era, in some areas of the Alps, a goat or sheep's horn would be sharpened and a tin panel would be punched out using the alphabet and numbers from one to nine. This learning tool was known appropriately as "the horn". Modern reproductions are decorated with such motifs as hearts and tulips.

In America, pie safes and food safes came into use in the days before refrigeration. These were wooden cupboards of various styles and sizes – either floor standing or hanging cupboards meant to discourage vermin and insects and to keep dust from perishable foodstuffs. These cabinets had tinplate inserts in the doors and sometimes in the sides, punched out by the homeowner, cabinetmaker or a tinsmith in varying designs to allow for air circulation. Modern reproductions of these articles remain popular in North America.[64]

Window glass is most often made by floating molten glass on top of molten tin (creating float glass) in order to produce a flat surface. This is called the "Pilkington process".[65]

Tin is also used as a negative electrode in advanced Li-ion batteries. Its application is somewhat limited by the fact that some tin surfaces[which?] catalyze decomposition of carbonate-based electrolytes used in Li-ion batteries.[66]

Tin(II) fluoride is added to some dental care products[67] as stannous fluoride (SnF2). Tin(II) fluoride can be mixed with calcium abrasives while the more common sodium fluoridegradually becomes biologically inactive combined with calcium compounds.[68] It has also been shown to be more effective than sodium fluoride in controlling gingivitis.[69]

Tin Souvenir

Organotin compounds[edit]

Main article: Organotin chemistry

Of all the chemical compounds of tin, the organotin compounds are most heavily used. Worldwide industrial production probably exceeds 50,000 tonnes.[70]

PVC stabilizers[edit]

The major commercial application of organotin compounds is in the stabilization of PVC plastics. In the absence of such stabilizers, PVC would otherwise rapidly degrade under heat, light, and atmospheric oxygen, to give discolored, brittle products. Tin scavenges labile chloride ions (Cl-), which would otherwise initiate loss of HCl from the plastic material.[71]Typical tin compounds are carboxylic acid derivatives of dibutyltin dichloride, such as the dilaurate.[72]

Biocides[edit]

Organotin compounds can have a relatively high toxicity, which is both advantageous and problematic. They have been used for their biocidal effects in/as fungicides, pesticides,algaecides, wood preservatives, and antifouling agents.[71] Tributyltin oxide is used as a wood preservative.[73] Tributyltin was used as additive for ship paint to prevent growth of marine organisms on ships, with use declining after organotin compounds were recognized as persistent organic pollutants with an extremely high toxicity for some marine organisms, for example the dog whelk.[74] The

banned the use of organotin compounds in 2003,[75] while concerns over the toxicity of these compounds to marine life and their effects on the reproduction and growth of some marine species,[71] (some reports describe biological effects to marine life at a concentration of 1 nanogram per liter) have led to a worldwide ban by the International Maritime Organization.[76] Many nations now restrict the use of organotin compounds to vessels over 25 meters long.[71]

Organic chemistry[edit]

Some tin reagents are useful in organic chemistry. In the largest application, stannous chloride is a common reducing agent for the conversion of nitro and oxime groups to amines. The Stille reaction couples organotin compounds with organic halides or pseudohalides.[77]

Li-ion batteries[edit]

Tin forms several inter-metallic phases with Lithium metal and it makes it a potentially attractive material. Large volumetric expansion of tin upon alloying with Lithium and instability of the Tin-organic electrolyte interface at low electrochemical potentials are the greatest challenges in employing it in commercial cells. The problem was partially solved by

Sony

. Tin inter-metallic compound with Cobalt, mixed with carbon, has been implemented by Sony in its Nexelion cells released in late 2000's. The composition of the active materials is close to Sn0.3Co0.4C0.3. Recent research showed that only some crystalline facets of tetragonal (beta) Sn are responsible for undesirable electrochemical activity.[78]

Precautions[edit]

Kuntoro

Indonesian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pending changes shown on page iniBelum Checked

Dr. ir

Kuntoro

Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources Indonesia 10th

In office

March 16, 1998 - May 21, 1998

President Soeharto

Preceded by Ida Bagus Sudjana

In office

May 21, 1998 - October 26, 1999

President Baharuddin Jusuf Habibie

Replaced by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

Director of PLN

In office

2000 - 2001

President Wahid

Preceded by Adi Satria

Succeeded by Eddie Widiono

personal information

Born March 14, 1947 (age 67)

Indonesian flag Purwokerto, Central Java, Indonesia

Dr. Ir. Kuntoro (born in Purwokerto, Central Java, March 14, 1947, age 67 years) is the Head of the Presidential Working Unit for Supervision and Management of Development (UKP-PPP, or more familiar called UKP4) since October 22, 2009 He is a former Minister of Mines and Indonesia's energy Development Reform Cabinet and also a former Director of PLN in 2000 - 2001 he also served as Head of the Executive Agency - BRR Aceh-Nias region charged with the recovery of post-tsunami Aceh and Nias devastating December 26, 2004 Currently, he is served as a member of Partners Partnership for Governance Reform. [1]

Contents [hide]

1 Education

2 Career

3 Other Activities

Footnote 4

5 External links

Education [edit | edit source]

S1 - Industrial Engineering ITB (1972)

Northeastern University

Stanford University, Industrial Engineer (1976)

S2 - Stanford University, Civil Engineer (1977)

S3 - ITB, Decision Science Engineering Science (1982)

Career [edit | edit source]

Lecturer Department of Industrial Engineering, ITB (1972-present)

Advisor to the Deputy Minister UP3DN (1983-1988)

Maid Administrative Assistant State Secretary RI (1984)

President Director of PT Tambang Coal Bukit Asam (1988-1989)

President Director of PT Tambang Timah (1989-1994)

Director General of General Mining, Ministry of Mines and Energy (1993-1997)

Deputy for Planning, Investment Coordinating Board (1997-1998)

Development Cabinet Minister of Mines (1998)

Mining Development Reform Cabinet Minister (1998-1999)

Director of PLN (2000)

Head of the Executive Agency - Agency for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (2005)

Head of the Presidential Work Unit for Development Monitoring and Control in the United Indonesia Cabinet II (Continoe)

Indonesia in Focus

Thursday, September 4, 2014

Unfinished journey (40)

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