Tsunami Aceh wipe oout all building except mosque |
Unfinished journey (47)
(Part forty-seven, Depok, West Java, Indonesia, 7
September 2014, 7:05 pm)
When more fun experimenting Community Radio in Ambon run
Christian and Muslim youths in post-conflict Maluku, December 2004, I suddenly
shocked with the team of enumerators other television news had a big earthquake
in the Indian Ocean tsunami that followed, killing hundreds thousands of people
in a dozen countries in Africa until (Madagascar and Somalia. biggest victim
Acehnese, India and Thailand. Victims large and massive infrastructure
destruction caused Indonesian government established the Agency for
Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (BRR) Aceh and Nias led Dr. Kuntoro.
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
Tsunami strikes Ao Nang, Thailand.
Date 26 December
2004 [1]
Origin time 00:58
UTC
Magnitude 9.1–9.3 Mw
[1]
Depth 30 km
(19 mi) [1]
Epicenter 3.316°N
95.854°ECoordinates: 3.316°N 95.854°E [1]
Type Megathrust
Areas affected Indonesia
(mainly in Aceh)
Sri Lanka
India (mostly in Tamil Nadu)
Thailand
Maldives
Somalia
Tsunami Yes
Casualties At least
280,000 deaths and missing [2][3][4]
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea
megathrust earthquake that occurred at 00:58:53 UTC on Sunday, 26 December
2004, with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. The quake
itself is known by the scientific community as the Sumatra–Andaman
earthquake.[5][6] The resulting tsunami was given various names, including the
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, South Asian tsunami, Indonesian tsunami, the
Christmas tsunami and the Boxing Day tsunami.[7]
The earthquake epycentrum aceh |
The earthquake was caused when the Indian Plate was
subducted by the Burma Plate and triggered a series of devastating tsunamis
along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing over
230,000 people in fourteen countries, and inundating coastal communities with
waves up to 30 meters (100 ft) high.[8] It was one of the deadliest natural
disasters in recorded history. Indonesia was the hardest-hit country, followed
by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand.
With a magnitude of Mw 9.1–9.3, it is the third largest
earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph. The earthquake had the longest
duration of faulting ever observed, between 8.3 and 10 minutes. It caused the
entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 centimetre (0.4 inches)[9] and triggered
other earthquakes as far away as Alaska.[10] Its epicentre was between Simeulue
and mainland Indonesia.[11] The plight of the affected people and countries
prompted a worldwide humanitarian response. In all, the worldwide community
donated more than $14 billion (2004 US$) in humanitarian aid.[12]
2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
Animation of tsunami caused by the earthquake showing how
it
radiated from the entire length of the 1,600 km (990 mi)
rupture
The earthquake was initially documented as moment
magnitude 8.8. In February 2005 scientists revised the estimate of the
magnitude to 9.0.[13] Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted
these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has so far not changed
its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude
of Mw 9.1–9.3. Dr. Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology
believes that Mw 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake.[14]
The hypocentre of the main earthquake was approximately
160 km (100 mi) off the western coast of northern Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean
just north of Simeulue island at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below mean sea level
(initially reported as 10 km (6.2 mi)). The northern section of the Sunda
megathrust ruptured over a length of 1,300 km (810 mi).[11] The earthquake
(followed by the tsunami) was felt simultaneously in Bangladesh, India,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore and the Maldives.[15] Splay faults, or
secondary "pop up faults", caused long, narrow parts of the sea floor
to pop up in seconds. This quickly elevated the height and increased the speed
of waves, causing the complete destruction of the nearby Indonesian town of Lhoknga.[16]
The impact of tsunami by country |
The epicentre of the earthquake, just north of Simeulue
Island.
Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the
north-eastern islands adjacent to New Guinea, and the Alpide belt that runs
along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores to Timor.
Great earthquakes such as the Sumatra-Andaman event,
which are invariably associated with megathrust events in subduction zones,
have seismic moments that can account for a significant fraction of the global
earthquake moment across century-scale time periods. Of all the seismic moment
released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly
one-eighth was due to the Sumatra-Andaman event. This quake, together with the
Good Friday Earthquake (Alaska, 1964) and the Great Chilean Earthquake (1960),
account for almost half of the total moment. The much smaller but still
catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake is included in the diagram below for
perspective. Mw denotes the magnitude of an earthquake on the moment magnitude
scale.
Since 1900 the only earthquakes recorded with a greater
magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964
Good Friday Earthquake in Prince William Sound (9.2). The only other recorded
earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka, Russia, on 4
November 1952 (magnitude 9.0)[17] and Tōhoku, Japan (magnitude 9.0) in March
2011. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific
Ocean. However, the death toll from these was significantly lower, primarily
because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas
and the much greater distances to more populated coasts and also due to the
superior infrastructure and warning systems in MEDCs (More Economically
Developed Countries) such as Japan.
Other very large megathrust earthquakes occurred in 1868
(Peru, Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1827 (Colombia, Nazca Plate and
South American Plate); 1812 (Venezuela, Caribbean Plate and South American
Plate) and 1700 (western North America, Juan de Fuca Plate and North American
Plate). All of them are believed to be greater than magnitude 9, but no
accurate measurements were available at the time.
Foreshock
The 2002 Sumatra earthquake is believed to have been a
foreshock, predating the main event by over two years.[18]
Tectonic plates
Main article: Plate tectonics
A pie chart comparing the seismic moment release for the
largest earthquakes from 1906 to 2005 compared to all other earthquakes for the
same period
The megathrust earthquake was unusually large in
geographical and geological extent. An estimated 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) of
fault surface slipped (or ruptured) about 15 metres (50 ft) along the
subduction zone where the Indian Plate slides (or subducts) under the overriding
Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two
phases over a period of several minutes:
Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first
phase involved a rupture about 400 kilometres (250 mi) long and 100 kilometres
(60 mi) wide, located 30 kilometers (19 mi) beneath the sea bed—the largest
rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded
at a speed of about 2.8 kilometres per second (1.7 miles per second) (10,000
km/h or 6,200 mph), beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding
north-westerly over a period of about 100 seconds.
A pause of about another 100 seconds took place before
the rupture continued northwards towards the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about
2.1 km/s (1.3 mi/s) (7,500 km/h or 4,700 mph), continuing north for another
five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction
to strike-slip (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions).
Tsunami in Banda Aceh |
The Indian Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian
Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is drifting
north-east at an average of 6 centimetres per year (2.4 inches per year). The
India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great
Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts
beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman
Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the
Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out
of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate causing
partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the
crust above and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a
volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate
subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc.
As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the
sea floor is estimated to have risen by several metres, displacing an estimated
30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) of water and triggering devastating tsunami
waves. The waves did not originate from a point source, as was inaccurately
depicted in some illustrations of their paths of travel, but rather radiated
outwards along the entire 1,600-kilometre (1,000 mi) length of the rupture
(acting as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over
which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the
Arctic. The raising of the sea floor significantly reduced the capacity of the
Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an
estimated 0.1 millimetres (0.004 in).[19]
Tsunami India |
Aftershocks and other earthquakes
Locations of initial earthquake and all aftershocks
measuring greater than 4.0 from 26 December 2004 to 10 January 2005. The site
of the original quake is marked by the large star in the lower right square of
the grid.
Numerous aftershocks were reported off the Andaman
Islands, the Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the
hours and days that followed. The magnitude 8.7 2005 Sumatra earthquake, which
originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of Nias, is not considered an
aftershock, despite its proximity to the epicenter, and was most likely
triggered by stress changes associated with the 2004 event.[20] This earthquake
was so large that it produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude
of as great as 6.1) and presently ranks as the 7th largest earthquake on record
since 1900. Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the
region daily for up to three or four months.[21] As well as continuing
aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make
its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its
reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data
about the Earth's interior.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days
after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in an uninhabited region west of New Zealand's
subantarctic Auckland Islands, and north of Australia's Macquarie Island. This
is unusual, since earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more occur only about once per
year on average.[22] Some seismologists have speculated about a connection
between these two earthquakes, saying that the former one might have been a
catalyst to the Indian Ocean earthquake, as the two earthquakes happened on
opposite sides of the Indo-Australian Plate. However, the U.S. Geological
Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship in this incident.
Coincidentally, the earthquake struck almost exactly one year (to the hour)
after a 6.6 magnitude earthquake killed an estimated 30,000 people in the city
of Bam in Iran on 26 December 2003.[7]
Some scientists confirm that the December earthquake had
activated Leuser Mountain, a volcano in Aceh province along the same range of
peaks as Mount Talang, while the 2005 Sumatra earthquake had sparked activity
in Lake Toba, an ancient crater in Sumatra.[23] Geologists say that the
eruption of Mount Talang in April 2005 is connected to the December
earthquake.[24]
Energy released
The energy released on the Earth's surface only (ME,
which is the seismic potential for damage) by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
and tsunami was estimated at 1.1×1017 joules,[25] or 26 megatons of TNT. This
energy is equivalent to over 1500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but
less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated. However,
the total work done MW (and thus energy) by this quake was 4.0×1022 joules
(4.0×1029 ergs),[26] the vast majority underground. This is over 360,000 times
more than its ME, equivalent to 9,600 gigatons of TNT equivalent (550 million
times that of Hiroshima) or about 370 years of energy use in the United States
at 2005 levels of 1.08×1020 J.
Tsunami Thailand |
The only recorded earthquakes with a larger MW were the
1960 Chilean and 1964 Alaskan quakes, with 2.5×1023 joules (250 ZJ) and
7.5×1022 joules (75 ZJ) respectively.[27]
The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the
Earth's surface of up to 20–30 cm (8–12 in), equivalent to the effect of the
tidal forces caused by the Sun and Moon. The shock waves of the earthquake were
felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where
vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded. By February 2005, the
earthquake's effects were still detectable as a 20 µm (0.02 mm; 0.0008 in)
complex harmonic oscillation of the Earth's surface, which gradually diminished
and merged with the incessant free oscillation of the Earth more than 4 months
after the earthquake.[28]
Because of its enormous energy release and shallow
rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions
around the globe, particularly due to huge Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves
that exceeded 1 cm (0.4 in) in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The
record section plot below displays vertical displacements of the Earth's
surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic
Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the
horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis
(note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged
vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees. The earliest, lower
amplitude, signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22
minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the antipode; in this case near
Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach
the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to
reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and
to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after
about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the
closest stations starting just after the 200 minute mark. This aftershock would
be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is dwarfed
by the mainshock.
Vertical-component ground motions recorded by the
IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network.
The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very
slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exact amount is not yet known, but
theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68
microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth.[29] It also
caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1
in) in the direction of 145° east longitude,[30] or perhaps by up to 5 or 6 cm
(2.0 or 2.4 in).[31] However, because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length
of a day increases at an average of 15 µs per year, so any rotational change
due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler
wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50 ft), will
eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.
More spectacularly, there was 10 m (33 ft) movement
laterally and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early
speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which
is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have
moved south-west by up to 36 m (120 ft), but more accurate data released more
than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 20 cm (8
in).[32] Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may
have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to
have shifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4 ft 1 in) and to have sunk by 1 m (3
ft 3 in).[33]
In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott
surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between
1,000 and 5,000 m (550 and 2,730 fathoms; 3,300 and 16,400 ft). The survey,
conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the
earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed.
1,500-metre-high (5,000 ft) thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity
along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometers wide.
One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km
long (300 ft by 1.25 mi). The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic
uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tons,
as far as 10 km (6 mi) across the seabed. An oceanic trench several kilometres
wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.[34]
The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites happened to
pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean.[35] These satellites carry
radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the
order of 50 cm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may
prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami.[36]
Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the
middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source
earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close
proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.
Tsunami characteristics
NOAA's tsunami travel time (TTT) map for the 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami. The TTT map calculates the first-arrival travel times of the
tsunami, following their generation at the earthquake epicenter. Note that the
maps do not provide the height or the strength of the wave, only the arrival
times. The number tags represent hours after the initial event. Map contours
represent 1-hour intervals. Red indicates 1-4 hour arrival times, Yellow
indicates 5-6 hour arrival times, Green indicates 7-14 hour arrival times, and
Blue indicates 15-21 hour arrival times. Maps were generated from earthquake epicenters
in the NGDC Global Historical Tsunami Database using NGDC 2-Minute Gridded
Global Relief Data bathymetry. The map was created through models based on
quality-controlled source data, and an integration of many data sets together.
Scale showing the size of the tsunami waves that hit
Indonesia
The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres
during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a
tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami that causes
damage far away from its source is sometimes called a teletsunami and is much
more likely to be produced by vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal
motion.[37]
The tsunami, like all others, behaved very differently in
deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only
a small hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at a very
high speed of 500 to 1,000 km/h (310 to 620 mph); in shallow water near
coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour but, in
doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in
Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of 24 metres (80 ft) when
coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to 30 metres (100
ft) in some areas when traveling inland.[8]
Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in
deep water: at two hours after the earthquake, the maximum height was 60
centimetres (2 ft). These are the first such observations ever made.
Unfortunately these observations could not be used to provide a warning, since
the satellites were not built for that purpose and the data took hours to
analyze.[38][39]
According to Tad Murty, vice-president of the Tsunami
Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about five
megatons of TNT (20 petajoules). This is more than twice the total explosive
energy used during all of World War II (including the two atomic bombs) but
still a couple of orders of magnitude less than the energy released in the
earthquake itself. In many places the waves reached as far as 2 km (1.2 mi)
inland.[40]
File:Tsunami wavefield for the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman
earthquake.webm
Tsunami wave field in the Bay of Bengal one hour after
the M=9.2 earthquake. View to the northwest.
Because the 1,600 km (1,000 mi) fault affected by the
earthquake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the greatest strength of
the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the
northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had very few casualties despite being a
low-lying country relatively near the epicenter. It also benefited from the
fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone,
greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region.
Coasts that have a landmass between them and the
tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can
sometimes diffract around such landmasses. Thus, the state of Kerala was hit by
the tsunami despite being on the western coast of India, and the western coast
of Sri Lanka suffered substantial impacts. Distance alone was no guarantee of
safety, as Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther
away.
Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took
anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours to reach the coastlines.[41][42]
The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit very quickly,
while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two
hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours later despite being closer to
the epicentre, because the tsunami traveled more slowly in the shallow Andaman
Sea off its western coast.
The tsunami was noticed as far as Struisbaai in South
Africa, some 8,500 km (5,300 mi) away, where a 1.5 m (5 ft) high tide surged on
shore about 16 hours after the earthquake. It took a relatively long time to
reach this spot at the southernmost point of Africa, probably because of the
broad continental shelf off South Africa and because the tsunami would have
followed the South African coast from east to west. The tsunami also reached
Antarctica, where tidal gauges at Japan's Showa Base recorded oscillations of
up to a metre (3 ft 3 in), with disturbances lasting a couple of days.[43]
Some of the tsunami's energy escaped into the Pacific
Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts
of North and South America, typically around 20 to 40 cm (7.9 to 15.7 in).[44]
At Manzanillo, Mexico, a 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) crest-to-trough tsunami was
measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada. This puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis
measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some
parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused
and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins
of the continental plates.[45]
Signs and warnings
Maximum recession of tsunami waters at Kata Noi Beach,
Thailand, before the third, and strongest, tsunami wave (sea visible in the
right corner, the beach is at the extreme left), 10:25 am local time.
Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake
and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken completely
by surprise. There were no tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to
detect tsunamis or to warn the general populace living around the ocean.
Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water it has
little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it. Setting up the
communications infrastructure to issue timely warnings is an even bigger
problem, particularly in a relatively poor part of the world.
Tsunami Malaysua |
Tsunamis are much more frequent in the Pacific Ocean
because of earthquakes in the "Ring of Fire", and an effective
tsunami warning system has long been in place there. Although the extreme
western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where
this earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there
are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia.
The last major tsunami was caused by the Krakatoa eruption of 1883. It should
be noted that not every earthquake produces large tsunamis; on 28 March 2005, a
magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did
not result in a major tsunami.
In the aftermath of the disaster, the Indian Ocean
Tsunami Warning System was constructed. It became operational in 2006 and
functioned successfully during the 2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes. Some have
even proposed creating a unified global tsunami warning system, to include the
Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean.
The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the
earthquake itself. However, tsunami can strike thousands of kilometres away
where the earthquake is only felt weakly or not at all. Also, in the minutes
preceding a tsunami strike, the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast.
Around the Indian Ocean, this rare sight reportedly induced people, especially
children, to visit the coast to investigate and collect stranded fish on as
much as 2.5 km (1.6 mi) of exposed beach, with fatal results.[46] However, not
all tsunamis cause this "disappearing sea" effect. In some cases,
there are no warning signs at all: the sea will suddenly swell without
retreating, surprising many people and giving them little time to flee.
One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the
tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Simeulue, very close to the epicentre.
Island folklore recounted an earthquake and tsunami in 1907, and the islanders
fled to inland hills after the initial shaking and before the tsunami
struck.[47] On Maikhao beach in northern Phuket, Thailand, a 10-year-old
British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied tsunami in geography at school
and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles.
She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely.[48]
John Chroston, a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at
Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to
safety on higher ground.
Anthropologists had initially expected the aboriginal
population of the Andaman Islands to be badly affected by the tsunami and even
feared the already depopulated Onge tribe could have been wiped out.[49] Many
of the aboriginal tribes evacuated and suffered fewer casualties.[50][51] Oral
traditions developed from previous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes
escape the tsunami. For example, the folklore of the Onges talks of "huge
shaking of ground followed by high wall of water". Almost all of the Onge
people seemed to have survived the tsunami.[52]
Death toll and casualties
Chennai's Marina Beach after the tsunami.
According to the U.S. Geological Survey a total of
227,898 people died (see table below for details).[1] Measured in lives lost,
this is one of the ten worst earthquakes in recorded history, as well as the
single worst tsunami in history. Indonesia was the worst affected area, with
most death toll estimates at around 170,000.[53] However, another report by
Siti Fadilah Supari, the Indonesian Minister of Health at the time, estimated the
death total to be as high as 220,000 in Indonesia alone, giving a total of
280,000 casualties.[4]
The tsunami caused serious damage and deaths as far as
the east coast of Africa, with the farthest recorded death due to the tsunami
occurring at Rooi Els in South Africa, 8,000 km (5,000 mi) away from the
epicentre. In total, eight people in South Africa died due to abnormally high
sea levels and waves.
Relief agencies reported that one-third of the dead
appeared to be children. This was a result of the high proportion of children
in the populations of many of the affected regions and because children were
the least able to resist being overcome by the surging waters. Oxfam went on to
report that as many as four times more women than men were killed in some
regions because they were waiting on the beach for the fishermen to return and
looking after their children in the houses.[54]
In addition to the large number of local residents, up to
9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak holiday travel
season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the Nordic
countries. The European nation hardest hit may have been Sweden, whose death
toll was 543.[55]
States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka,
Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that
the relief operation would be the costliest in human history. Then UN
Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that reconstruction would probably take
between five and ten years. Governments and non-governmental organisations
feared that the final death toll might double as a result of diseases,
prompting a massive humanitarian response. In the end, this fear did not
materialise.
Patong Beach, Thailand, after the tsunami
For purposes of establishing timelines of local events,
the time zones of affected areas are: UTC+3: (Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia,
Tanzania); UTC+4: (Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles); UTC+5: (Maldives);
UTC+5:30: (India, Sri Lanka); UTC+6: (Bangladesh); UTC+6:30: (Cocos Islands,
Myanmar); UTC+7: (Indonesia (western), Thailand); UTC+8: (Malaysia, Singapore).
Since the earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC, add the above offsets to find
the local time of the earthquake.
Country where
deaths occurred Confirmed Estimated1 Injured Missing Displaced
Indonesia 130,736 167,799 n/a 37,063 500,000+[56]
Sri Lanka2 35,322[57] 35,322 21,411[57] n/a 516,150[57]
India 12,405 18,045 n/a 5,640 647,599
Thailand 5,3953[58] 8,212 8,457[59] 2,817[58] 7,000
Somalia 78 289[60] n/a n/a 5,000[61]
Myanmar (Burma) 61 400–600[62] 45 200[63] 3,200
Maldives 82[64] 108[65] n/a 26 15,000+
Malaysia 68[66] 75 299[67] 6 5,000+
Tanzania 10[68] 13 n/a n/a n/a
Seychelles 3[69] 3 57[69] n/a 200[70]
Bangladesh 2 2 n/a n/a n/a
South Africa 24[71] 2 n/a n/a n/a
Yemen 2[72] 2 n/a n/a n/a
Kenya 1 1 2 n/a n/a
Madagascar n/a n/a n/a n/a 1,000+[73]
Total ~184,167 ~230,273 ~125,000 ~45,752 ~1.69
million
1 Includes those reported under 'Confirmed'. If no
separate estimates are available, the number in this column is the same as
reported under 'Confirmed'.
2 Does not include approximately 19,000 missing people
initially declared by Tamil Tiger authorities from regions under their control.
3 Data includes at least 2,464 foreigners.
4 Does not include South African citizens who died
outside of South Africa (e.g., tourists in Thailand). For more information on
those deaths, see this
Countries affected
Countries most affected by the tsunami, with the
earthquake's epicenter.
Main article: Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake
The earthquake and resulting tsunami affected many
countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India,
Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and others. Many
other countries, especially Australia and those in Europe, had large numbers of
citizens traveling in the region on holiday. Sweden lost 543 citizens in the
disaster, while Germany had 539 identified victims.
Event in historical context
See also: Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian
Ocean earthquake
The last major tsunami in the Indian Ocean was about A.D.
1400.[74][75] In 2008, a team of scientists working on Phra Thong, a barrier
island along the hard-hit west coast of Thailand, reported evidence of at least
three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the most recent
from about 700 years ago. A second team found similar evidence of previous
tsunamis in Aceh, a province at the northern tip of Sumatra; radiocarbon dating
of bark fragments in soil below the second sand layer led the scientists to
estimate that the most recent predecessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred
between A.D. 1300 and 1450.[76]
Dr. Kuntoro Mangkusubroto |
The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined are the world's
deadliest natural disaster since the 1976 Tangshan earthquake. This earthquake
was the third most powerful earthquake recorded since 1900. The deadliest known
earthquake in history occurred in 1556 in Shaanxi, China, with an estimated
death toll of 830,000, though figures from this time period may not be as
reliable.[77]
The 2004 tsunami is the deadliest in recorded history.
Prior to 2004, the tsunami created in both Indian and Pacific Ocean waters by
the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, thought to have resulted in anywhere from 36,000
to 120,000 deaths, had probably been the deadliest in the region. In 1782 about
40,000 people are thought to have been killed by a tsunami (or a cyclone) in
the South China Sea.[78] The most deadly tsunami prior to 2004 was Italy's 1908
Messina Earthquake on the Mediterranean Sea where the earthquake and tsunami
killed about 123,000.[79]
Humanitarian, economic and environmental impact
Main article: Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian
Ocean earthquake
A great deal of humanitarian aid was needed because of
widespread damage of the infrastructure, shortages of food and water, and
economic damage. Epidemics were of special concern due to the high population
density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian
and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking
water to contain the spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery,
typhoid and hepatitis A and B.
There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase
as disease and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response,
this was minimized.[80]
In the days following the tsunami, significant effort was
spent in burying bodies hurriedly for fear of disease. However, the public
health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been
the best way to allocate resources. The World Food Programme provided food aid
to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.[81]
Further information: Health risks from dead bodies
Nations all over the world provided over US$14 billion in
aid for damaged regions,[82] with the governments of Australia pledging
US$819.9 million (including a US$760.6-million aid package for Indonesia),
Germany offering US$660 million, Japan offering US$500 million, Canada offering
US$343 million, Norway and the Netherlands offering both US$183 million, the
United States offering US$35 million initially (increased to US$350 million),
and the World Bank offering US$250 million. Also Italy offered US$95 million,
increased later to US$113 million of which US$42 million was donated by the
population using the SMS system[83] According to USAID, the US has pledged
additional funds in long-term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild
their lives. On 9 February 2005, President Bush asked Congress to increase the
U.S. commitment to a total of US$950 million. Officials estimated that billions
of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former President George
H. W. Bush, and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide
private aid to the tsunami victims.[84]
In mid-March the Asian Development Bank reported that
over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka
reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign
individuals had been generous.[85] Many charities were given considerable
donations from the public. For example, in the United Kingdom the public
donated roughly £330,000,000 sterling (nearly US$600,000,000). This considerably
outweighed the donation by the government and came to an average of about £5.50
(US$10) donated by every citizen.
In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on
post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in northeast Sri Lanka after heavy
fighting, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said. There
had been reports and rumors that the local aid workers had been killed.
Economic impact
The level of damage to the economy resulting from the
tsunami depends on the scale examined. While local economies were devastated,
the overall impact to the national economies was minor. The two main
occupations affected by the tsunami were fishing and tourism.[86] The impact on
coastal fishing communities and the people living there, some of the poorest in
the region, has been devastating with high losses of income earners as well as
boats and fishing gear.[87] In Sri Lanka artisanal fishery, where the use of
fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important
source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic
activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years
the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector,
generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates
indicate that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal
regions have been destroyed by the wave surges, which will have adverse
economic effects both at local and national levels.[88]
While the tsunami destroyed many of the boats vital to
Sri Lanka's fishing industry, it also created demand for fiberglass reinforced
plastic catamarans in boatyards of Tamil Nadu. Since over 51,000 vessels were
lost to the tsunami, the industry boomed. However, the huge demand has led to
lower quality in the process, and some important materials were sacrificed to
cut prices for those who were impoverished by the tsunami.[89]
But some economists believe that damage to the affected
national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing
industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others
caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas
drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by
salt water from the ocean.[90] Even though only costal regions were directly
affected by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect effects have spread to
inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so
extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the
world, even though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This
ripple effect could especially be felt in the inland provinces of Thailand,
such as Krabi, which acted like a starting point for many other tourist
destinations in Thailand.[91]
Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected
shipping in the Malacca Straits, which separate Malaysia and the Indonesian
island of Sumatra, by changing the depth of the seabed and by disturbing
navigational buoys and old shipwrecks. In one area of the Strait, water depths
were previously up to 4,000 feet, and are now only 100 feet in some areas,
making shipping impossible and dangerous. These problems also made the delivery
of relief aid more challenging. Compiling new navigational charts may take
months or years. However, officials hope that piracy in the region will drop
off as a result of the tsunami.[92]
Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return,
pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists
were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts
of Thailand which were completely untouched by the tsunami were hit by
cancellations.[93]
Environmental impact
Tsunami inundation, Khao Lak, North of Phuket, Thailand
ASTER Images and SRTM Elevation Model.
Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean
earthquake has caused an enormous environmental impact that will affect the
region for many years to come. It has been reported that severe damage has been
inflicted on ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests, coastal
wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant
biodiversity and groundwater. In addition, the spread of solid and liquid waste
and industrial chemicals, water pollution and the destruction of sewage
collectors and treatment plants threaten the environment even further, in
untold ways. The environmental impact will take a long time and significant
resources to assess.[94]
According to specialists, the main effect is being caused
by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and the soil by saltwater infiltration
and deposit of a salt layer over arable land. It has been reported that in the
Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are
completely without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades.
Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand and earth;
and aquifers were invaded through porous rock. Salted-over soil becomes
sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also
causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of
rice, mango and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely
and will take years to recover. On the island's east coast, the tsunami
contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water. The
Colombo-based International Water Management Institute monitored the effects of
saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water
quality one and a half years after the event.[95] IWMI developed protocols for
cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially
endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency
Guidelines.[96]
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is
working with governments of the region in order to determine the severity of
the ecological impact and how to address it.[97] UNEP has decided to earmark a
US$1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish a Task Force to respond to
requests for technical assistance from countries affected by the tsunami.[98]
In response to a request from the Maldivian Government, the Australian
Government sent ecological experts to help restore marine environments and
coral reefs—the lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological
expertise has been rendered from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in
Australia's northeastern waters.
Other effects
Many health professionals and aid workers have reported
widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami. Traditional
beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family
must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be
buried. Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies,
and continue to have unique needs.
The hardest hit area, Aceh, is considered to be a
religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no tourism nor any Western
presence in recent years due to armed conflict between the Indonesian military
and Acehnese separatists. Some believe that the tsunami was divine punishment
for lay Muslims shirking their daily prayers and/or following a materialistic
lifestyle. Others have said that Allah was angry that there were Muslims
killing other Muslims in an ongoing conflict.[99] Saudi cleric Muhammad
Al-Munajjid attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers "who
used to sprawl all over the beaches and in pubs overflowing with wine"
during Christmas break.[100]
The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led the
main rebel group GAM to declare a cease-fire on 28 December 2004 followed by
the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace talks,
which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 August 2005. The agreement
explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification.[101]
In a poll conducted in 27 countries by GlobeScan for BBC
World Service, 15 percent of respondents named the tsunami the most significant
event of the year. Only the Iraq War was named by as many respondents.[102] The
extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass
media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of
newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami-affected areas, in special
video-conferences set up by the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre.[103]
The 26 December 2004 Asian Tsunami left both the people
and government of India in a state of heightened alert. On 30 December 2004,
four days after the tsunami, the Portland, Oregon-based company Terra Research
notified the India government that its sensors indicated there was a
possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in the next 12 hours between
Sumatra and New Zealand.[104] In response, the India Home Affairs minister
announced that a fresh onslaught of deadly tidal waves were likely along the
India southern coast and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, even as there was no sign
of turbulences in the region.[104] The announcement generated panic in the
Indian Ocean region and caused thousands to flee their homes, which resulted in
jammed roads.[105] The announcement was a false alarm and the Home Affairs
minister withdrew their announcement.[105] On further investigation, the India
government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the
home of a self-described earthquake forecaster who had no telephone listing and
maintained a website where he sold copies of his detection system.[106] Three
days after the announcement, Indian National Congress president Sonia Gandhi
called Science & Technology minister Kapil Sibal to express her concern
about Sibal's 30 December public warning being "hogwash".[107]
Another result of the tsunami, respective toward Indian
culture, was the water that washed away centuries of sand from some of the
ruins of a 1,200-year-old lost city at Mahabalipuram on the south coast of
India. The site, containing such notable structures as a half-buried granite
lion near a 7th-century Mahablipuram temple and a relic depicting an elephant,
is part of what archaeologists believe to be an ancient port city that was
swallowed by the sea hundreds of years ago.[108][109]
The tsunami had a severe humanitarian and political
impact in Sweden. The hardest hit country outside Asia, 543 Swedish tourists,
mainly in Thailand, died. With no single incident having killed more Swedish
people since the battle of Poltava in 1709, the cabinet of Göran Persson was heavily
criticized for lack of action.
Apung 1, a 2600 ton ship, was flung some 2–3 km inland by
the tsunami, and has become a popular tourist attraction in Banda Aceh.
Lists of earthquakes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The following is a list of earthquake lists, and of top
earthquakes by magnitude and fatalities.
Contents [hide]
1 Main lists
2 Lists of earthquakes by country
3 Largest earthquakes by magnitude
4 Deadliest earthquakes on record
5 Property damages caused by earthquake
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Main lists[edit]
Historical earthquakes (before 1901)
List of 20th-century earthquakes (1901–2000)
List of 21st-century earthquakes (2001–present)
Largest earthquakes by magnitude[edit]
A pie chart comparing the seismic moment release of the
three largest earthquakes for the hundred year period from 1906 to 2005 with
that for all earthquakes of magnitudes <6, 6 to 7, 7 to 8 and >8 for the
same period
Earthquakes of magnitude 8.0 and greater since 1900. The
apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their
respective fatalities.[1]
Listed below are all known earthquakes measured or
estimated to have a magnitude of 8.5 or above on the moment magnitude or
Richter scales.
This list is biased towards recent years due to
development and widespread deployment of seismometers. Also, records that were
detailed enough to make magnitude estimates (est.) were not generally available
before 1900.[2]
Date Location Name Magnitude
May 22, 1960 Valdivia,
Chile 1960 Valdivia earthquake 9.5
March 27, 1964 Prince
William Sound, Alaska, USA 1964
Alaska earthquake 9.2
December 26, 2004 Indian
Ocean, Sumatra, Indonesia 2004
Indian Ocean earthquake 9.1–9.3
November 4, 1952 Kamchatka,
Russian SFSR, Soviet Union 1952
Kamchatka earthquakes 9.0[3]
March 11, 2011 Pacific
Ocean, Tōhoku region, Japan 2011 Tōhoku
earthquake 9.0[4][5][6]
December 2, 1611 Pacific
Ocean, Hokkaido, Japan 1611 Sanriku
earthquake 8.9- (est.)
September 16, 1615 Arica,
Chile (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1615
Arica earthquake 8.8 (est.)
April 2, 1762 Chittagong,
Bangladesh (then Kingdom of Mrauk U) 1762
Arakan earthquake 8.8 (est.)
November 25, 1833 Sumatra,
Indonesia (then part of the Dutch East Indies) 1833
Sumatra earthquake 8.8–9.2 (est.)
January 31, 1906 Ecuador
– Colombia 1906 Ecuador-Colombia
earthquake 8.8
February 27, 2010 Bio-Bio,
Chile 2010 Chile earthquake 8.8
January 26, 1700 Pacific
Ocean, USA and Canada (then part of the British Empire) 1700 Cascadia earthquake 8.7–9.2
(est.)[7]
October 28, 1707 Pacific
Ocean, Shikoku region, Japan 1707 Hōei
earthquake 8.7-9.3 (est.)
July 8, 1730 Valparaiso,
Chile (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1730
Valparaiso earthquake 8.7
(est.)[8]
November 1, 1755 Atlantic
Ocean, Lisbon, Portugal 1755 Lisbon
earthquake 8.7 (est.)[9]
February 4, 1965 Rat
Islands, Alaska, USA 1965 Rat Islands
earthquake 8.7
July 9, 869 Pacific
Ocean, Tōhoku region, Japan 869 Sanriku
earthquake 8.6-9.0 (est.)
October 28, 1746 Lima,
Peru (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1746
Lima-Callao earthquake 8.6-8.8
(est.)
March 28, 1787 Oaxaca,
Mexico (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1787
Mexico earthquake 8.6-8.7 (est.)
April 1, 1946 Aleutian
Islands, Alaska, USA 1946 Aleutian
Islands earthquake 8.6
August 15, 1950 Assam,
India – Tibet, China 1950 Assam - Tibet
earthquake 8.6
March 9, 1957 Andreanof
Islands, Alaska, USA 1957 Andreanof
Islands earthquake 8.6
March 28, 2005 Sumatra,
Indonesia 2005 Sumatra earthquake 8.6
April 11, 2012 Indian
Ocean, Sumatra, Indonesia 2012 Aceh
earthquake 8.6
December 16, 1575 Valdivia,
Chile (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1575
Valdivia earthquake 8.5 (est.)
November 24, 1604 Arica,
Chile (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1604
Arica earthquake 8.5 (est.)
May 13, 1647 Santiago,
Chile (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1647
Santiago earthquake 8.5 (est.)
May 24, 1751 Concepción,
Chile (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1751
Concepción earthquake 8.5 (est.)
November 19, 1822 Valparaíso,
Chile 1822 Valparaíso earthquake 8.5 (est.)
February 20, 1835 Concepción,
Chile 1835 Concepción earthquake 8.5 (est.)
February 16, 1861 Sumatra,
Indonesia 1861 Sumatra earthquake 8.5
August 13, 1868 Arica,
Chile (then Peru) 1868 Arica
earthquake 8.5–9.0 (est.)[10]
May 9, 1877 Iquique,
Chile (then Peru) 1877 Iquique
earthquake 8.5-9.0 (est.)
November 10, 1922 Atacama
Region, Chile 1922 Vallenar
earthquake 8.5[11]
February 1, 1938 Banda
Sea, Indonesia (then part of the Dutch East Indies) 1938 Banda Sea earthquake 8.5
October 13, 1963 Kuril
Islands, Russia (USSR) 1963 Kuril
Islands earthquake 8.5[12]
September 12, 2007 Sumatra,
Indonesia 2007 Sumatra earthquakes 8.5
October 20, 1687 Lima,
Peru (then part of the Spanish Empire) 1687
Peru earthquake 8.4-8.7 (est.)
May 18, 1841 Kamchatka,
Russia 1841 Kamchatka earthquakes 8.4-8.6(est.)
October 17, 1737 Kamchatka,
Russia 1737 Kamchatka earthquakes 8.3-9.0(est.)
February 3, 1923 Kamchatka,
Russia (USSR) 1923 Kamchatka earthquakes 8.3-8.5[12]
August 3, 1361 Pacific
Ocean, Shikoku region, Japan 1361 Shōhei
earthquake 8.2-8.5 (est.)
September 20, 1498 Pacific
Ocean, Tōkai region, Japan 1498 Meiō
Nankaidō earthquake 8.2-8.5 (est.)
June 15, 1896 Pacific
Ocean, Tōhoku region, Japan 1896 Sanriku
earthquake 8.2-8.5(est.)
July 23, 1905 Uvs
Province, Mongolia 1905 Bulnay
earthquake 8.2-8.5
Deadliest earthquakes on record[edit]
Deadliest earthquakes[13]
Rank Name Date Location Fatalities Magnitude Notes
1 "Shaanxi" January 23, 1556 Shaanxi, China 820,000–830,000
(est.)[14] 8.0 (est.) Estimated death toll in Shaanxi, China.
2 "Haiyuan" December 16, 1920 Ningxia–Gansu, China 273,400[15][16] 7.8 Major
fractures, landslides.
3 "Tangshan" July 28, 1976 Hebei, China 242,769[16][17] 7.8
4 "Antioch" May 21, 526 Antioch,
Turkey (then Byzantine Empire) 240,000[18] 7.0 (est.)[19] Procopius (II.14.6), sources based on John of Ephesus.
5 "Indian
Ocean" December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean, Sumatra, Indonesia 230,210+[20][21] 9.1–9.3 Deaths
from earthquake and resulting tsunami.
6 "Aleppo" October 11, 1138 Aleppo, Syria 230,000 Unknown The
figure of 230,000 dead is based on a historical conflation of this earthquake
with earthquakes in November 1137 on the Jazira plain and the large seismic
event of September 30, 1139 in the Azerbaijani city of Ganja. The first mention
of a 230,000 death toll was by Ibn Taghribirdi in the fifteenth century.[22]
7 "Haiti" January 12, 2010 Haiti 100,000–316,000 7.0 Estimates
vary from 316,000 (unsubstantiated Haitian government claim) to 222,570 (United
Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs estimate)[23] to
158,000 (report published in the Medicine, Conflict and Survival) to between
85,000 and 46,000 (unpublished LTL Strategies report commissioned by
USAID).[24][25]
8 "Damghan" December 22, 856 Damghan, Iran 200,000
(est.) 7.9 (est.)
9 "Ardabil" March 22, 893 Ardabil, Iran 150,000
(est.) Unknown Reports probably relate to the 893 Dvin earthquake, due to
misreading of the Arabic word for Dvin, 'Dabil' as 'Ardabil'.[26] This is
regarded as a 'fake earthquake'.[27]
10 "Aleppo" November 29, 533 Syria 130,000[28] ?
11 "Messina" December 28, 1908 Messina, Italy 123,000[29] 7.1 On
December 28, 1908 from about 5:20 to 5:21 am an earthquake of 7.1 on the moment
magnitude scale occurred centered on Messina, a city in Sicily, Italy. Reggio
Calabria on the Italian mainland also suffered heavy damage. The ground shook
for some 30 to 40 seconds, and the destruction was felt within a 300 km radius.
Moments after the earthquake, a 40 feet (12 m) tsunami struck nearby coasts
causing even more devastation. 93% of structures in Messina were destroyed and
some 70,000 residents were killed. Rescuers searched through the rubble for
weeks, and whole families were still being pulled out alive days later, but
thousands remained buried there. Buildings in the area had not been constructed
for earthquake resistance, having heavy roofs and vulnerable foundations.
12 "Ashgabat" October 6, 1948 Ashgabat, Turkmen SSR (modern-day Turkmenistan) 110,000[30] 7.3
13 "Great
Kantō" September 1, 1923 Kantō region, Japan 105,385[31] 7.9 An earthquake which struck the Kantō
plain on the Japanese main island of Honshū at 11:58 on the morning of
September 1, 1923. Varied accounts hold that the duration of the earthquake was
between 4 and 10 minutes. The quake had an epicenter deep beneath Izu Ōshima
Island in Sagami Bay. It devastated Tokyo, the port city of Yokohama,
surrounding prefectures of Chiba, Kanagawa, and Shizuoka, and caused widespread
damage throughout the Kantō region.[32] The power and intensity of the
earthquake is easy to underestimate, but the 1923 earthquake managed to move
the 93-ton Great Buddha statue at Kamakura. The statue slid forward almost two
feet.[33] Casualty estimates range from about 100,000 to 142,800 deaths, the
latter figure including approximately 40,000 who went missing and were presumed
dead.
14 "Chihli" September 27, 1290 Ningcheng, China 100,000[34] 6.8
14 "Kashmir" October 8, 2005 Muzaffarabad, Pakistan 100,000[35] 7.6
Property damages caused by earthquake[edit]
Rank Name Magnitude Property damages
1 2011 Tōhoku
earthquake, Japan 9.0[6] $235 billion[36][37]
2 1995 Great
Hanshin earthquake, Japan 6.9 $100 billion
3 2008 Sichuan
earthquake, China 8.0 $75 billion
4 2011
Christchurch earthquake, New Zealand 6.3[38] $40 billion [39]
5 2010 Chile
earthquake, Chile 8.8[40] $15–30 billion[40]
6 1994
Northridge earthquake, United States 6.7 $20 billion
7 2012 Emilia
earthquakes, Italy 6.1[41] $13.2 billion
8 1989 Loma
Prieta earthquake, United States ~7.0;
6.9-7.1 reported[42] $11 billion
9 1999 921
earthquake, Taiwan 7.6 $10 billion
10 1906 San
Francisco earthquake, United States 7.7
to 7.9 (est.)[41] $9.5 billion ($400
million 1906 value[41])
Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi (BRR) NAD-Nias, or
Agency for the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Aceh and Nias, is an
Indonesian government agency which coordinated and jointly implemented the
recovery programme following the Indian Ocean tsunami that mostly affected Aceh
in December 2004, and the Nias earthquake in March 2005.
BRR was established by the President of Indonesia, Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono on 16 April 2005. The agency operated for a four-year period,
based in Banda Aceh, with a regional office in Nias and a representative office
in Jakarta. Ex Indonesia Ministry, a Stanford alumnus[1] Kuntoro Mangkusubroto[2]
was appointed to lead BRR, in coordination with recovery community.
The recovery programme in Aceh and Nias is regarded as
one of the largest humanitarian programmes in history.[3]
The agency’s mission is to restore livelihoods and
strengthen communities in Aceh and Nias by designing and overseeing a
coordinated, community-driven reconstruction and development program
implemented according to the highest professional standards.
With nearly 653 funding agencies and 564 implementing
partners responding to the Aceh tsunami (2004) and Nias earthquake (2005), the
possibility of overlapping projects was very high.[4] BRR was needed to ensure
reconstruction program is effective, duplication is minimized, and that donor
funds are used optimally, as well as important role of local community input
and participation in the reconstruction effort.
The programme involved up to 20,000 projects implemented
by hundreds organisations, including local and national government
institutions, multilateral and bilateral agencies, and national and
international NGOs, along with thousands of volunteers and other participants
from all around the world.
The initial damage and loss assessment for Aceh was
US$4.5 billion, and for Nias US$400 million. These assessments combined with a
fluctuating inflation rate and an estimated US$1.5 billion for upgrading
neglected facilities within these regions, raised the total funding required
for the reconstruction to more than US$7 billion.
The response from the national and international
communities was unprecedented, with a total of US$7.2 billion pledged and
nearly US$7 billion committed which, based on recent calculations, translates
to an approximate 93% realisation of aid funding.
The BRR Knowledge Centre (KNOW)[5] is dedicated to the
preservation of data and management of information related to the
rehabilitation and reconstruction programme in Aceh and Nias (2005–09). KNOW
was established by BRR (Continoe)
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