Indonesia in Focus: Unfinished journey (54)

Muslim in China

Unfinished journey (54)

(Part fifty-four, Depok, West Java, Indonesia, 9 September 2014, 13:39 pm)

There is news from Saudi Arabia, that the agreement signed between the Government of Saudi Arabia and China that will help assistance Riyadh Arabic lessons for Muslims in China.

The agreement was signed for teaching Arabic to Muslim China

Deal inked for teaching of Arabic to Chinese Muslims

The Chinese Islamic Relations Council have signed an agreement with a Saudi company specialized in distance education for teaching Arabic to Chinese Muslims to help them understand and enhance their knowledge of Islamic civilization, it was revealed recently.

Dr. Ding Hui, chairman of the Board of Chinese Islamic Relations Council said it is a ground-breaking agreement made to promote and disseminate the culture of the learning of the Arabic language in China, a country with a population of about 1.4 billion people of whom 50 million are Muslims.

“There are some Islamic schools teaching Arabic but it is not sufficient,” he said, adding that language education needs specialists in the field to convey the message properly.

He maintained that donations for the building of mosques and Islamic schools are essential and this combined with the presence of specialized training in the Arabic language would benefit all.

He said the signing of the agreement would take the bilateral relations between the two countries to new heights and toward raising the level of Muslims in China in terms of understanding Islam, Islamic culture and civilization.

He noted that there are thousands of Chinese who are fluent in speaking and writing Arabic.

“The Islamic c

ivilization is among the top five ancient civilizations which has come down to us through the ages and has been in existence throughout history,” Dr. Ding Hui said, adding that the Chinese have always been very interested in the Arab-Islamic culture, even before the western influences entered China.

The chairman said that they would arrange meetings with universities and Chinese schools in the country and would recommend to the experts of the company that they use their programs for teaching Arabic.

Zuhair bin Ali Azhar, CEO of the distance education company said that this agreement, which provides for the provision of education and training services, underlined the importance of the need for Chinese Muslims to master the language of their religion in a country where the number of Arabic speakers is minimal.

He said that the Chinese Muslims will not only learn the Arabic language and its sciences but also read the Qur’an in the language it was revealed in.

“This step comes as an extension of the duties toward social partnership with Muslims in general, and the Arab nation and Islamic world in particular,” he said.

He also said that the Arabic language has been able to accommodate different civilizations, and even become the dominant language in literature, politics and culture as well as being the language of religion and worship.

The Saudi company specialized in distance education and training is a strategic partner of the Arab Organization for Education, Science and Culture and Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture.

China

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the People's Republic of China. For the Republic of China, see Taiwan. For other uses, see China (disambiguation) and PRC (disambiguation).

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People's Republic of China

中华人民共和国

Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó

Flag National Emblem

Anthem:

《义勇军进行曲》《義勇軍進行曲》

Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ (Pinyin)

"March of the Volunteers"

MENU0:00

Area controlled by the People's Republic of China shown in dark green; claimed but uncontrolled regions shown in light green.

Note: Although Taipei is shown as one of the cities of the PRC, China does not hold actual sovereignty over Taiwan and its capital Taipei.

Capital Beijing[a]

39°55′N 116°23′E

Largest city Shanghai[1]

Official languages Standard Chinese[2][b]

Recognised regional languages

Mongolian Tibetan Uyghur Zhuang various others

Official written language Vernacular Chinese

Official script Simplified Chinese[2]

Ethnic groups

91.51% Han[3]

55 minorities[c][show]

Demonym Chinese

Government Single-party socialist state[4]

- President Xi Jinping[d]

- Premier Li Keqiang

- Congress Chairman Zhang Dejiang

- Conference Chairman Yu Zhengsheng

Legislature National People's Congress

Formation

- Unification of China under the Qin Dynasty 221 BCE

- Republic established 1 January 1912

- People's Republic proclaimed 1 October 1949

Area

- Total 9,596,961 km2[e] (3rd/4th)

3,705,407 sq mi

- Water (%) 0.28%[f]

Population

- 2012 estimate 1,350,695,000[9] (1st)

- 2010 census 1,339,724,852[10] (1st)

- Density 2011 estimate:[11] 144/km2 (83rd)

373/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2014 estimate

- Total $14.625 trillion[12] (2nd)

- Per capita $10,695[13] (88th)

GDP (nominal) 2014 estimate

- Total $10.028 trillion[13] (2nd)

- Per capita $7,333[13] (82nd)

Gini (2012) 47.4[14]

high

HDI (2013) Increase 0.719[15]

high · 91st

Currency Renminbi (yuan)(¥)[g] (CNY)

Time zone China Standard Time (UTC+8)

Date format

yyyy-mm-dd

or yyyy年m月d日

(CE; CE-1949)

Drives on the right[h]

Calling code +86

ISO 3166 code CN

Internet TLD

.cn

.中國

.中国

China (Listeni/ˈtʃaɪnə/; simplified Chinese: 中国; traditional Chinese: 中國; pinyin: Zhōngguó), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a sovereign state located in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of over 1.35 billion. The PRC is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party, with its seat of government in the capital city of Beijing.[16] It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four direct-controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The PRC also claims the territories governed by Taiwan, a separate political entity officially known as the Republic of China (ROC), as its 23rd province, a claim which is controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan.[17]

Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometers, China is the world's second-largest country by land area,[18] and either the third or fourth-largest by total area, depending on the method of measurement.[i] China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometres (9,000 mi) long, and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East and South China Seas.

The history of China goes back to the ancient civilization – one of the world's earliest – that flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies, known as dynasties, beginning with the semi-mythological Xia of the Yellow River basin (c. 2000 BCE). Since 221 BCE, when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire, the country has expanded, fractured and been reformed numerous times. The Republic of China (ROC) overthrew the last dynasty in 1911, and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949. After the defeat of the Empire of Japan in World War II, the Communist Party defeated the nationalist Kuomintang in mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, while the Kuomintang relocated the ROC government to its present capital of Taipei.

China had the largest and most complex economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years, during which it as seen cycles of prosperity and decline.[19][20] Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, China has become one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. As of 2013, it is the world's second-largest economy by both nominal total GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP), and is also the world's largest exporter and importer of goods.[21] China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world's largest standing army, with the second-largest defence budget.[22] The PRC has been a United Nations member since 1971, when it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM and the G-20. China is a regional power within Asia and has been characterized as a potential superpower by a number of commentators.[23][24]

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

The word "China" is derived from the Persian word Chin (چین), which is from the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन).[27] It is first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa.[28] The journal was translated and published in England in 1555.[29] The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini, is that Cīna is derived from "Qin" (秦), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty.[30] However, the word was used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata (5th century BC) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BC).[31][32]

The official name of the present country is the People's Republic of China (Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó). The common Chinese names for the country are Zhōngguó (Chinese: 中国, from zhōng, "central" or "middle", and guó, "state" or "states," and in modern times, "nation") and Zhōnghuá (Chinese: 中华), although the country's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments. The term Zhōngguó appeared in various ancient texts, such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BCE,[j] and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived "barbarians". The term, which can be either singular or plural, referred to the group of states or provinces in the central plain, but was not used as a name for the country as a whole until the nineteenth century. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their country as "central", with other civilizations having the same view of themselves.[33]

History

History of China

ANCIENT

Neolithic c. 8500–c. 2100 BCE

Xia dynasty c. 2100–c. 1600 BCE

Shang dynasty c. 1600–c. 1046 BCE

Zhou dynasty c. 1045–256 BCE

Western Zhou

Eastern Zhou

Spring and Autumn

Warring States

IMPERIAL

Qin dynasty 221–206 BCE

Han dynasty 206 BCE – 220 CE

Western Han

Xin dynasty

Eastern Han

Three Kingdoms 220–280

Wei, Shu and Wu

Jin dynasty 265–420

Western Jin

Eastern Jin 16 Kingdoms

Southern and Northern Dynasties

420–589

Sui dynasty 581–618

Tang dynasty 618–907

(Second Zhou 690–705)

5 Dynasties and

10 Kingdoms

907–960 Liao dynasty

907–1125

Song dynasty

960–1279

Northern Song W. Xia

Southern Song Jin

Yuan dynasty 1271–1368

Ming dynasty 1368–1644

Qing dynasty 1644–1911

MODERN

Republic of China 1912–1949

People's Republic

of China

1949–present Republic of

China on Taiwan

1949–present

Related articles [show]

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Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history

Prehistory

Main article: Chinese prehistory

Jade deer ornament dating from the Shang Dynasty (17th–11th centuries BCE)

Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 250,000 and 2.24 million years ago.[34] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) exhibits hominid fossils dated at between 680,000 and 780,000 BCE.[35] The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire.[36] The Peking Man site has also yielded remains of Homo sapiens dating back to 18,000–11,000 BCE.[37] Some scholars assert that a form of proto-writing existed in China as early as 3000 BCE.[38]

According to Chinese tradition, the first imperial dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2070 BCE.[39] However, the dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959.[40] It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period.[41]

Early dynastic rule

Further information: Dynasties in Chinese history

The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang,[42] settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE.[43] The oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found,[44] and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[45] The Shang were conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 12th and 5th centuries BCE, until its centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year Spring and Autumn Period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and army.

Imperial China

Some of the thousands of life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 210 BCE

The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE, after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state. Qin Shi Huang, the emperor of Qin, proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" (始皇帝) and imposed reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of the Chinese language, measurements, length of cart axles, and currency. The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after Qin Shi Huang's death, as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.[46][47]

The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the present day.[46][47] The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.[48] The Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism, a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period, as its official state ideology. Despite the Han's official abandonment of Legalism, the official ideology of the Qin, Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed the basis of the Han government.[49]

The Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the Chinese interior from incursions by nomadic pastoralists of the northern steppes

After the collapse of Han, a period of disunion known as the period of the Three Kingdoms followed.[50] In 581 CE, China was reunited under the Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty declined following its defeat in the Goguryeo–Sui War (598–614).[51][52]

Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture entered a golden age.[53] The An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century devastated the country and weakened the dynasty.[54] The Song Dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy.[55] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly due to the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song Dynasty also saw a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity,[56] and social elites gathered to view art, share their own and trade precious artworks. The Song Dynasty saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang.[57]

Muslim in China

Detail from Along the River During the Qingming Festival, a 12th-century painting showing everyday life in the Song Dynasty's capital city, Bianjing (today's Kaifeng)

In the 13th century, China was gradually conquered by the Mongol empire. In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song Dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.[58] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty. Under the Ming Dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led explorations throughout the world, reaching as far as Africa.[59] In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. During the Ming Dynasty, philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and innate morality.[60]

In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official who led the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty.

China Territory

End of dynastic rule

A 19th-century painting depicting the Taiping Rebellion of 1850–1864

The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. In the 19th century, the dynasty experienced Western imperialism following the First Opium War (1839–42) and the Second Opium War (1856–60) with Britain. China was forced to sign unequal treaties, pay compensation, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British[61] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.[62]

The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which millions of people died. In the 1850s and 1860s, the failed Taiping Rebellion ravaged southern China. Other major rebellions included the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–67), the Nien Rebellion (1851–68), the Miao Rebellion (1854–73), the Panthay Rebellion (1856–73) and the Dungan Revolt (1862–77).

In the 19th century, the great Chinese Diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–79, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.[63] In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but he was overthrown by the Empress Dowager Cixi in a coup d'état. The ill-fated anti-Western Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the Qing dynasty. The Xinhai Revolution of 1911–12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China.

Republic of China (1912–1949)

Main articles: Republic of China (1912–1949) and History of the Republic of China

Sun Yat-sen, the father of modern China (seated on right), and Chiang Kai-shek, later President of the Republic of China

On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president.[64] However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and reestablish the republic.[65]

After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[66][67] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition.[68][69] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.[70][71] The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists, against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the Communists retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.[72]

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theatre of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[73] An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[74] Japan surrendered unconditionally to China in 1945. Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was put under the administrative control of the Republic of China, which immediately claimed sovereignty. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[75]

People's Republic of China (1949–present)

Main article: History of the People's Republic of China

Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the PRC in 1949

Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China.[76] In 1950, the People's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC[77] and occupying Tibet.[78] However, remaining Nationalist forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s.[79]

Mao encouraged population growth, and under his leadership the Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.[80] However, Mao's Great Leap Forward, a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[81] Between 1 and 2 million landlords were executed as "counterrevolutionaries."[82] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a period of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[83]

After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the Gang of Four, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping took power and led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded in favour of private land leases. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment.[84] China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries.[85]

Shanghai skyline

Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[86][87] The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao's leadership in the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,[88][89] and caused major social displacement.[90][91] Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late-2000s recession, but centralized political control remained tight.[92]

Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals.[93] During China's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi Jinping.[94][95] Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy,[96][97] which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth.[98][99][100][101] The Xi-Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child policy and prison system.[102]

Geography

Main article: Geography of China

A composite satellite image showing the topography of China

Longsheng Rice Terrace in Guangxi

The Li River in Guangxi

Political geography

Main articles: Borders of China and Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area[103] after Russia, and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition of total area, the United States.[k] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[104] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[105] 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[6] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the CIA World Factbook.[8]

China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin.[8] China borders 14 nations, more than any other country except Russia, which also borders 14.[106] China extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan[l] in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines and Taiwan.

Landscape and climate

The South China Sea coast at Hainan

Jiuzhaigou Valley in Sichuan

The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.[107] The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154m) in the Turpan Depression.[108]

China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.[109] The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's highly complex topography.

A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.[110][111] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan. China's environmental watchdog, Sepa, stated in 2007 that China is losing a million acres (4,000 km²) per year to desertification.[112] Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[113]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of China

A giant panda, China's most famous endangered and endemic species, at the Wolong National Nature Reserve in Sichuan

China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[114] lying in two of the world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia.[115] The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993.[116] It later produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010.[117]

China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest such number in the world),[118] 1,221 species of birds (eighth),[119] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[120] and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).[121] China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside of the tropics. Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world's largest population of homo sapiens. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine.[122] Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.[123]

China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[124] and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[125] The understorey of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora.[125] Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.[125] China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi,[126] and of them, nearly 6,000 are higher fungi.[127]

Environmental issues

Main article: Environmental issues in China

See also: Water resources of the People's Republic of China

Wind turbines in Xinjiang. The Dabancheng project is Asia's largest wind farm

In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution.[128][129] While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development.[130] Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country; the World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China.[131] China is the world's largest carbon dioxide emitter.[132] The country also has water problems. Roughly 298 million Chinese in rural areas do not have access to safe drinking water,[133] and 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011.[134] This crisis is compounded by increasingly severe water shortages, particularly in the north-east of the country.[135][136]

Chinese policeman

However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy commercialization, with $52 billion invested in 2011 alone;[137][138][139] it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.[140][141] By 2009, over 17% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources – most notably hydroelectric power plants, of which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW.[142] In 2011, the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$618.55 billion) in water infrastructure and desalination projects over a ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti-drought system by 2020.[135][143] In 2013, China began a five-year, US$277-billion effort to reduce air pollution, particularly in the north of the country.[144]

Politics

Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China

Tiananmen with a portrait of Mao Zedong

The People's Republic of China is one of the world's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism (see Ideology of the Communist Party of China). The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and corporatist,[145] with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion.[146] Its current political, ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the "people's democratic dictatorship", "socialism with Chinese characteristics" (which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and the "socialist market economy" respectively.[147]

Communist Party

The country is ruled by the Communist Party of China (CPC), whose power is enshrined in China's constitution.[148] The Chinese electoral system is hierarchical, whereby local People's Congresses are directly elected, and all higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.[149] The political system is decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy.[150] There are other political parties in China, referred to in China as democratic parties, which participate in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).[151]

The Great Hall of the People in Beijing, where the National People's Congress convenes

Compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of China has resulted in the administrative climate being less restrictive than before. China supports the Leninist principle of "democratic centralism",[152] but the elected National People's Congress has been described as a "rubber stamp" body.[153] As a single-party state, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China holds ultimate power and authority over state and government.[m]

Government

The President of China is the titular head of state, serving as the ceremonial figurehead under National People's Congress.[n] The Premier of China is the head of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent President is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader.[94] The incumbent Premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.[156]

There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels.[157][158] However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.[159][160] Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80–95% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey.[161]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Administrative divisions of China, Districts of Hong Kong and Municipalities of Macau

The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is currently and independently governed by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's claim.[162] China also has five subdivisions officially termed autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two Special Administrative Regions (SARs), which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau. None of these divisions are recognized by the ROC government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory.

Provinces (省)

Claimed Province

Anhui (安徽省)

Fujian (福建省)

Gansu (甘肃省)

Guangdong (广东省)

Guizhou (贵州省)

Hainan (海南省)

Hebei (河北省)

Heilongjiang (黑龙江省)

Henan (河南省)

Hubei (湖北省)

Hunan (湖南省)

Jiangsu (江苏省)

Jiangxi (江西省)

Jilin (吉林省)

Liaoning (辽宁省)

Qinghai (青海省)

Shaanxi (陕西省)

Shandong (山东省)

Shanxi (山西省)

Sichuan (四川省)

Yunnan (云南省)

Zhejiang (浙江省)

Taiwan (台湾省)

governed by ROC

Autonomous regions (自治区)

Municipalities (直辖市)

Special administrative regions (特别行政区)

Guangxi (广西壮族自治区)

Inner Mongolia / Nei Mongol (内蒙古自治区)

Ningxia (宁夏回族自治区)

Xinjiang (新疆维吾尔自治区)

Tibet / Xizang (西藏自治区)

Beijing (北京市)

Chongqing (重庆市)

Shanghai (上海市)

Tianjin (天津市)

Hong Kong / Xianggang (香港特别行政区)

Macau / Aomen (澳门特别行政区)

China administrative claimed included.svg

About this image

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of China

Xi Jinping at a meeting with United States Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta in September 2012.

The PRC has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162.[163] Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[164] China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.[165] Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011.[166]

Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[167] especially in the matter of armament sales.[168] Political meetings between foreign government officials and the 14th Dalai Lama are also opposed by China, as the latter considers Tibet to be formally part of China.[169]

Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[170] This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran.[171] China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia,[172] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.[173][174][175]

A meeting of G5 leaders in 2007, with China's Hu Jintao second from right

Trade relations

In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbours. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.[176] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian republics. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 11 December 2001.

In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[177] China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[178] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[179][180][181] In recent decades, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation;[182][183][184] in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over US$160 billion.[185] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina.[186][187]

Territorial disputes

Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighbouring states. For a larger map, see here.

Main article: Foreign relations of China § International territorial disputes

See also: List of wars involving the People's Republic of China

In addition to claiming all of Taiwan, China has been involved in a number of other international territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.[188][189] On 21 May 2014 President Xi, speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial disputes peacefully. "China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests," he said.[190]

Emerging superpower status

China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century.[24][191] Others, however, warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.[192][193] Some authors also question the definition of "superpower", arguing that China's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting that it lacks the military and cultural influence of the United States.[194]

Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform

See also: Human rights in China, Hukou system, Social welfare in China, Elections in the People's Republic of China, Censorship in China and Feminism in China

Protests in support of Cantonese media localization in Guangzhou, 2010

The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.[195][196] Censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet,[197][198] is openly and routinely used in China to silence criticism of the government and the ruling Communist Party.[199][200] In 2005, Reporters Without Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a very low level of perceived press freedom.[201]

Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as second-class citizens by the hukou household registration system, which controls access to state benefits.[202][203] Property rights are often poorly protected,[202] and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens.[203] However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers.[204][205]

A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced abortions,[206] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights,[146][207][208] and excessive use of the death penalty.[209][210] The government has suppressed demonstrations by organizations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression.[211][212]

The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of economic development and the "people's rights to subsistence and development".[213] It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese standard of living, literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods.[213][214][215] Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization, although others remain more conservative.[216] Some major reform efforts have been conducted; for an instance in November 2013, the government announced its plans to the abolish the much-criticized re-education through labour program.[102] Although during the 2000s and early 2010s, the Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to social problems, such "third sector" activity remained heavily regulated.[217]

Military

Main article: People's Liberation Army

A PLAAF Chengdu J-10 fighter aircraft

With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC).[218] The PLA consists of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF), and a strategic nuclear force, the Second Artillery Corps. According to the Chinese government, China's military expenditure in 2012 totalled US$100 billion, constituting the world's second-largest military budget.[219] However, other nations, such as the United States, have argued that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.[220]

As a recognized nuclear weapons state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower.[221] According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Defense, China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs, along with a number of SRBMs.[22] However, compared with the other four UN Security Council Permanent Members, China has a relatively limited power projection capabilities.[222] To offset this, it has developed numerous power projection assets – its first aircraft carrier entered service in 2012,[223][224][225][226] and it maintains a substantial fleet of submarines, including several nuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile submarines.[227] China has furthermore established a network of foreign military relationships along critical sea lanes.[228]

Lanzhou (DDG170) is a Type 052C destroyer of the PLAN

China has made significant progress in modernising its air force since the early 2000s, purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the Sukhoi Su-30, and also manufacturing its own modern fighters, most notably the Chengdu J-10 and the Shenyang J-11, J-15 and J-16.[223][229] China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft and numerous combat drones.[230][231][232] China has also updated its ground forces, replacing its ageing Soviet-derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern Type 99 tank, and upgrading its battlefield C3I and C4I systems to enhance its network-centric warfare capabilities.[233] In addition, China has developed or acquired numerous advanced missile systems,[234][235] including anti-satellite missiles,[236] cruise missiles[237] and submarine-launched nuclear ICBMs.[238]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of China, Agriculture in China and List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP

The Shanghai Stock Exchange building in Shanghai's Lujiazui financial district. Shanghai has the 25th-largest city GDP in the world, totalling US$304 billion in 2011[239]

As of 2013, China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totalling approximately US$9.3253 trillion according to the International Monetary. If purchasing power parity (PPP) is taken into account (US$13.395 trillion in 2013), China's economy is again second only to the United States. In 2013, its PPP GDP per capita was US$9,844, while nominal GDP per capita was US$6,747. Both cases put China behind around ninety countries (out of 183 countries on the IMF list) in global GDP per capita rankings.[13]

Economic history and growth

Main article: Economic history of China (1949–present)

From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership,[240] and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism.[241][242] The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.[243][244][245][246]

Nanjing Road, a major shopping street in Shanghai

Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China has been among the world's fastest-growing economies,[247] relying largely on investment- and export-led growth.[248] According to the IMF, China's annual average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10.5%. Between 2007 and 2011, China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7 countries' growth combined.[249] According to the Global Growth Generators index announced by Citigroup in February 2011, China has a very high 3G growth rating.[250] Its high productivity, low labour costs and relatively good infrastructure have made it a global leader in manufacturing. However, the Chinese economy is highly energy-intensive and inefficient;[251] China became the world's largest energy consumer in 2010,[252] relies on coal to supply over 70% of its energy needs, and surpassed the US to become the world's largest oil importer in September 2013.[253][254] However, China's economic growth and industrialization has damaged its environment, and in the early 2010s, China's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles—international demand for Chinese exports has weakened and this has led to turmoil in the global economy.[255][256][257]

In the online realm, China's e-commerce industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US, with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards. According to Credit Suisse, the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to around RMB 4 trillion (US$660 billion) in 2012. Alipay has the biggest market share in China with 300 million users and control of just under half of China's online payment market in February 2014, while Tenpay's share is around 20 percent, and China UnionPay's share is slightly greater than 10 percent.[258]

China in the global economy

China is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$3.87 trillion in 2012.[21] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$2.85 trillion by the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year, making its reserves by far the world's largest.[259][260] As of 2009, China owns an estimated $1.6 trillion of US securities.[261] China, holding over US$1.16 trillion in US Treasury bonds,[262] is the largest foreign holder of US public debt.[263][264] In 2012, China was the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $253 billion.[265] China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012,[265] and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.[266] China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies,[180][267][268] and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.[269][270]

A graph comparing the 2012 nominal GDPs of major economies

in US$ billions, according to IMF data[271]

China ranked 29th in the Global Competitiveness Index in 2009,[272] although it is only ranked 136th among the 179 countries measured in the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom.[273] In 2011, 61 Chinese companies were listed in the Fortune Global 500.[274] Measured by total revenues, three of the world's top ten most valuable companies in 2011 were Chinese, including fifth-ranked Sinopec Group, sixth-ranked China National Petroleum and seventh-ranked State Grid (the world's largest electric utilities company).[274]

Class and income equality

See also: Great Mosque of Xian

Song dynasty[edit]

Main article: Islam during the Song Dynasty

Many Muslims went to China to trade, and these Muslims began to have a great economic impact and influence on the country. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), Muslims in China dominated foreign trade and the import/export industry to the south and west.[7]

In 1070, the Song emperor, Shen-tsung (Shenzong) invited 5,300 Muslim men from Bukhara, to settle in China. The emperor used these men in his campaign against the Liao empire in the northeast. Later on these men were settled between the Sung capital of Kaifeng and Yenching (modern day Beijing). The object was to create a buffer zone between the Chinese and the Liao. In 1080, 10,000 Arab men and women migrated to China on horseback and settled in all of the provinces of the north and north-east.[8] The Chinese materia medica 52 (re-published in 1968-75) was revised under the Song Dynasty in 1056 and 1107 to include material, particularly 200 medicines, taken from Ibn Sina's The Canon of Medicine.[9]

The Arabs from Bukhara were under the leadership of Prince Amir Sayyid "So-fei-er" (his Chinese name). The prince was later given an honorary title. He is reputed of being the "father" of the Muslim community in China. Prior to him Islam was named by the Tang and Song Chinese as Dashi fa ("law of the Arabs") (Tashi or Dashi is the Chinese rendering of Tazi—the name the Persian people used for the Arabs). .[10] He renamed it to Huihui Jiao ("the Religion of the Huihui").[11]

Yuan dynasty[edit]

Main article: Islam during the Yuan dynasty

The Yuan Dynasty of China, continued to maintain excellent relationship with other nomadic tribes of Mongolia. The Mongol rulers of Yuan Dynasty elevated the status of foreigners of all religions versus the Han, Khitan, and Jurchen, and placed many foreigners such as Muslim Persians and Arabs, Turkic Christians, Jews, Tibetan Buddhist Lamas, and Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs in high-ranking posts instead of native Confucian scholars, using many Muslims in the administration of China. The territory of the Yuan was administered in 12 districts during the reign of Kublai Khan with a governor and vice-governor each. According to Iranian historian Rashidu'd-Din Fadlu'llah, of these 12 governors, 8 were Muslims; in the remaining districts, Muslims were vice-governors.[12]

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.[13]

The state forced massive amounts of Central Asian Muslims to move into China during Yuan period. In the fourteenth century, the total population of Muslims was 4,000,000.[14] It was during this time that Jamal ad-Din, a Persian astronomer, presented Kublai Khan with seven Persian astronomical instruments.[15] Also, The Muslim architect Yeheidie'erding (Amir al-Din) learned from Han architecture and helped to designed and construct the capital of the Yuan Dynasty, Dadu, otherwise known as Khanbaliq or Khanbaligh.[16]

In the mid 14th century, the Ispah Rebellion against the Mongol Yuan led by Chinese Persian Muslims broke out in South Fujian. After the rebellion was suppressed the local Han Chinese in Quanzhou turned against Semu people and great misery was brought upon Muslim population. Quanzhou itself ceased to be a leading international seaport.

Genghis Khan, and the following Yuan Emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.[17] Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher.[18][19] Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim Generals joined Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim Generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese which meant "barracks" and also mean "thanks", many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.[20]

Dadu would last until 1368 when Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty and future Hongwu Emperor, made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital.[21] The last Yuan emperor fled north to Shangdu and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming Dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground.[21] The city was renamed Beiping by the Ming in the same year.

Ming dynasty[edit]

Chang Yuchun was a Muslim Ming Dynasty general who greatly contributed to overthrowing Mongol rule.[22]

Main article: Islam during the Ming Dynasty

Muslims continued to flourish in China during the Ming Dynasty. During Ming rule, the capital, Nanjing, was a center of Islamic learning.[23] The Ming dynasty saw the rapid decline in the Muslim population in the sea ports. This was due to the closing of all seaport trade with the outside world. However it also saw the appointment of Muslim military generals such as Mu Ying who campaigned in Yunnan and central Shandong. These two areas became leading centers of Islamic learning in China. The emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was the founder of the Ming Dynasty. Many of his most trusted commanders were Muslims, including Hu Dahai, Mu Ying, Lan Yu, Feng Sheng and Ding Dexing. The Ming Dynasty also gave rise to the famous Muslim explorer Zheng He.[24]

Muslims in Ming dynasty Beijing were given relative freedom by the Chinese, with no restrictions placed on their religious practices or freedom of worship, and being normal citizens in Beijing. In contrast to the freedom granted to Muslims, followers of Tibetan Buddhism and Catholicism suffered from restrictions and censure in Beijing.[25]

Integration[edit]

Immigration slowed down drastically however, and the Muslims in China became increasingly isolated from the rest of the Islamic world, gradually becoming more sinicized, adopting the Chinese language and Chinese dress. During this period, Muslims also began to adopt Chinese surnames. Other Muslims, who could not find a Chinese surname similar to their own, adopted the Chinese character most similar to their own - Ma (馬) for Muhammad, Mai for Mustafa, Mu for Masoud, Ha for Hasan, Hu for Hussain and Sa'I for Said and so on. The Hui, Salar, and Dongxiang are Muslims in China who use Chinese surnames. As a result the Muslims became "outwardly indistinguishable" from the Chinese.[26]

In addition to names, Muslim customs of dress and food also underwent a synthesis with Chinese culture.The Islamic modes of dress and dietary rules were maintained within a Chinese cultural framework. In time, the immigrant Muslims began to speak local dialects and to read in Chinese.

Qing dynasty[edit]

Main article: Islam during the Qing Dynasty

Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) was ruled by the Manchus.

In the Qing Dynasty, Muslims had many mosques in the large cities, with particularly important ones in Beijing, Xi'an, Hangzhou, Guangzhou, and other places (in addition to those in the western Muslim regions). The architecture typically employed traditional Chinese styles, with Arabic-language inscriptions being the chief distinguishing feature. Many Muslims held government positions, including positions of importance, particularly in the army. As travel became easier, there were many exchanges between China and the outside world. Around this time, Chinese Muslims also became the first Muslims in New Zealand (See Islam in New Zealand). Sufism spread throughout the Northwestern China in the early decades of the Qing Dynasty (mid-17th century through early 18th century).[27] The most important Sufi orders (menhuan) included:

The Qadiriyya, which was established in China Qi Jingyi (祁静一), also known as Hilal al-Din (1656–1719), student of the famous Central Asian Sufi teachers, Khoja Afaq and Kjoja Abd Alla. He was known among the Hui Sufis as Qi Daozu (Grand Master Qi). The shrine complex around "great tomb" (da gongbei) in Linxia remains the center of the Qadiriyya in China.

The Khufiyya: a Naqshbandi order.

The Jahriyya: another Naqshbandi menhuan, founded by Ma Mingxin.

Gunners of the Dungan revolt

Ming loyalist Muslims[edit]

When the Qing dynasty invaded the Ming dynasty in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin[28] and Ding Guodong led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor.[29] The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay.[30][31][32] The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt.[33] After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged alleigance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military.[34] When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing.[35] The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.

The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing.[36]

In Guangzhou, the national monuments known as "The Muslim's Loyal Trio" are the tombs of Ming loyalist Muslims who were martyred while fighting in battle against the Qing in the Manchu conquest of China in Guangzhou.[37]

Dungan and Panthay Revolts[edit]

Main articles: Dungan revolt (1862–1877) and Panthay rebellion

During the time, the Muslims revolted against the Qing Dynasty, most notably in the Dungan revolt (1862–1877) and the Panthay rebellion 1856-1873) in Yunnan. The Manchu government ordered the execution of all rebels, killing a million people in the Panthay rebellion,[6][38] several million in the Dungan revolt.[6]

However, Muslims in other parts of China proper like in the east and southern provinces who did not revolt, were not affected at all by the rebellion, and experienced no genocide, nor did they seek to revolt. It was reported that Muslim villages in Henan province, which was next to Shaanxi, were totally unnaffected and relations between Han and Hui continued normally.

The Hui Muslim population of Beijing was unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan revolt.[39]

Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the Henan area, with no ramifications or consequences from th Muslim rebellions of other areas. Allès wrote "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain."[40]

Many Muslims like Ma Zhan'ao, Ma Anliang, Dong Fuxiang, Ma Qianling, and Ma Julung defected to the Qing dynasty side, and helped the Qing general Zuo Zongtang exterminate the Muslim rebels. These Muslim generals belonged to the Khafiya sect, and they helped Qing massacre Jahariyya rebels. General Zuo moved the Han around Hezhou out of the area and relocated them as a reward for the Muslims there helping Qing kill other Muslim rebels.

A Muslim army called the Kansu Braves led by General Dong Fuxiang fought for the Qing dynasty against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. They included well known Generals like Ma Anliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang.

In Yunnan was noted that the Qing armies only massacred the Muslims who had rebelled, and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising.[41]

Republic of China[edit]

Main article: Islam in China (1911-present)

The Manchu dynasty fell in 1911, and the Republic of China was established by Sun Yat Sen, who immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Hui (Muslim), Meng (Mongol), and the Tsang (Tibetan) peoples. This led to some improvement in relations between these different peoples. The end of the Qing dynasty also marked an increase in Sino-foreign interaction. This led to increased contact between Muslim minorities in China and the Islamic states of the Middle East. A missionary, Claude Pickens, found 834 well-known Hui who had made hajj between 1923 and 1934. By 1939, at least 33 Hui Muslims had studied at Cairo's Al-Azhar University. In 1912, the Chinese Muslim Federation was formed in the capital Nanjing. Similar organization formed in Beijing (1912), Shanghai (1925) and Jinan (1934).[42] Academic activities within the Muslim community also flourished. Before the Sino-Japanese War of 1937, there existed more than a hundred known Muslim periodicals. Thirty journals were published between 1911 and 1937. Although Linxia remained the center for religious activities, many Muslim cultural activities had shifted to Beijing.[43]

In the first decade of the 20th century, it has been estimated that there were 20 million Muslims in China proper (that is, China excluding the regions of Mongolia and Xinjiang).[44][45][46][47][48] Of these, almost half resided in Gansu, over a third in Shaanxi (as defined at that time) and the rest in Yunnan. In 1911, the provinces of Qinhai, Gansu and Ningxia fell to Muslim warlords of the family known as the Ma clique, including Ma Bufang and Ma Chung-ying.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war the Japanese followed what has been referred to as a "killing policy" and destroyed many mosques. According to Wan Lei, "Statistics showed that the Japanese destroyed 220 mosques and killed countless Hui people by April 1941." After the Rape of Nanking mosques in Nanjing were found to be filled with dead bodies.They also followed a policy of economic oppression which involved the destruction of mosques and Hui communities and made many Hui jobless and homeless. Another policy was one of deliberate humiliation. This included soldiers smearing mosques with pork fat, forcing Hui to butcher pigs to feed the soldiers, and forcing girls to supposedly train as geishas and singers but in fact made them serve as sex slaves. Hui cemeteries were destroyed for military reasons.[49] Many Hui fought in the war against Japan.

Muslims affiliated with the Kuomintang moved to Taiwan after the Chinese Civil War.

Early communist era[edit]

The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949. Through many of the early years there were tremendous upheavals which culminated in the Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution urban youths were encouraged to move to the countryside to "tame the wilderness" and many chose Xinjiang, inadvertently diverting Muslim influence.[50] During that time, the government also constantly accused Muslims and other religious groups of holding "superstitious beliefs" and promoting "anti-socialist trends".[51] Mosques were often defaced, destroyed or closed and copies of the Quran were destroyed along with temples, churches, monasteries, and cemeteries by the Red Guards.[52]

Chinese Muslims say that the Soviet Union was worse in regards to its treatment of Islam than China during the "ten black years" (of the Cultural Revolution).[53]

Since the advent of Deng Xiaopeng in 1979, the Chinese government liberalised its policies toward Islam and Muslims. New legislation gave all minorities the freedom to use their own spoken and written languages; develop their own culture and education; and practice their religion.[54] More Chinese Muslims than ever before are allowed to go on the Hajj.[55]

China today[edit]

Main article: Islam in China (1911-present)

Under China's current leadership, Islam is undergoing a modest revival and there are now many mosques in China. There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nation-wide Islamic associations have been organised to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims.

In most of China, Muslims have considerable religious freedom, however, in areas like Xinjiang, where there has been unrest among Uighur Muslims, activities are restricted. China is fighting an increasingly protracted struggle against members of its Uighur minority, who are a Turkic people with their own language and distinct Islamic culture. Uighar separatists are intent on re-establishing the state of East Turkistan, which existed for a few years in the 1920s.Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, China feared potential separatist goals of Muslim majority in Xinjiang. An April, 1996 agreement between Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikstan and Kyrgyztan, however, assures China of avoiding a military conflict. Other Muslim states have also asserted that they have no intentions of becoming involved in China's internal affairs.[56] China fears the influence of radical Islamic thinking filtering in from central Asia, and the role of exiles in neighbouring states and in Turkey, with which Xinjiang's majority Uighur population shares linguistic ties.[57]

With economic reform after 1978, health care in China became largely private fee-for-service due to the introduction of capitalist reforms which abolished the free socialist health care. This was widely criticised by Muslims in the North West, who were often unable to obtain medical support in their remote communities.

In 2007, which according to the Chinese zodiac was the Year of the Pig, CCTV, People's Republic of China's state run television station ordered major advertising agencies not to use pig images, cartoons or slogans "to avoid conflicts with ethnic minorities" in reference to China's Muslims.[58]

Islamic education[edit]

Jingtang Jiaoyu was a system of Islamic education developed during the Ming dynasty among the Hui, centered around Mosques. The Arabic and Persian language Thirteen Classics were part of the main curriculum.[59] In the madrassas, some Chinese Muslim literature like the Han Kitab were used for educational purposes.[60] Liu Zhi (scholar) wrote texts to help Hui learn Arabic.[61] Persian was the main Islamic foreign language used by Chinese Muslims, followed by Arabic.[62]

Hui Muslim Generals like Ma Fuxiang, Ma Hongkui, and Ma Bufang funded schools or sponsored students studying abroad. Imam Hu Songshan and Ma Linyi were involved in reforming Islamic education inside China.

Muslim Kuomintang officials in the Republic of China government supported the Chengda Teachers Academy, which helped usher in a new era of Islamic education in China, promoting nationalism and Chinese language among Muslims, and fully incorporating them into the main aspects of Chinese society.[63] The Ministry of Education provided funds to the Chinese Islamic National Salvation Federation for Chinese Muslim's education.[64][65] The President of the federation was General Bai Chongxi (Pai Chung-hsi) and the vice president was Tang Kesan (Tang Ko-san).[66] 40 Sino-Arabic primary schools were founded in Ningxia by its Governor Ma Hongkui.[67]

Imam Wang Jingzhai studied at Al-Azhar University in Egypt along with several other Chinese Muslim students, the first Chinese students in modern times to study in the Middle East.[68] Wang recalled his experience teaching at madrassas in the provinces of Henan (Yu), Hebei (Ji), and Shandong (Lu) which were outside of the traditional stronghold of Muslim education in northwest China, and where the living conditions were poorer and the students had a much tougher time than the northwestern students.[69] In 1931 China sent five students to study at Al-Azhar in Egypt, among them was Muhammad Ma Jian and they were the first Chinese to study at Al-Azhar.[70][71][72][73] Na Zhong, a descendant of Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) was another one of the students sent to Al-Azhar in 1931, along with Zhang Ziren, Ma Jian, and Lin Zhongming.[74]

Hui Muslims from the Central Plains (Zhongyuan) differed in their view of women's education than Hui Muslims from the northwestern provinces, with the Hui from the Central Plains provinces like Henan having a history of women's Mosques and religious schooling for women, while Hui women in northwestern provinces were kept in the house. However in northwestern China reformers started bringing female education in the 1920s. In Linxia, Gansu, a secular school for Hui girls was founded by the Muslim warlord Ma Bufang, the school was named Shuada Suqin Wmen's Primary School after his wife Ma Suqin who was also involved in its founding.[75] Hui Muslim refugees fled to northwest China from the central plains after the Japanese invasion of China, where they continued to practice women's education and build women's mosque communities, while women's education was not adopted by the local northwestern Hui Muslims and the two different communities continued to differ in this practice.[76]

General Ma Fuxiang donated funds to promote education for Hui Muslims and help build a class of intellectuals among the Hui and promote the Hui role in developing the nation's strength.[77]

After secondary education is completed, Chinese law then allows students who are willing to embark on religious studies under an Imam.[78]

Islam in China

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

It has been suggested that Islam in China (1911–present) be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since June 2014.

The Huaisheng Mosque is one of the oldest mosques in the world, whose construction is attributed to Prophet Muhammad's maternal uncle, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas.

Islam in China

Top of the Great Mosque of Xi'an

History[show]

Major figures[show]

Culture[show]

Cities Regions

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Portal icon Islam in China portal

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Islam in China has existed through 1,400 years of continuous interaction with Chinese society[1] while Muslims living in every region of China.[2] Various sources estimate different numbers of adherents with some sources indicating that 2% of the total population in China are Muslims.[3] Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Sunni Muslim.[2]

The Great Mosque of Xi'an, one of China's oldest mosques

Main article: History of Islam in China

According to China Muslims' traditional legendary accounts, Islam was first brought to China by Saad ibn Abi Wasqas. Chinese Muslims have been in China for the last 1,400 years of continuous interaction with Chinese society.[1] "Islam expanded gradually across the maritime and inland silk routes from the 7th to the 10th centuries through trade and diplomatic exchanges."[4]

Introduction of Islam in 616-18 AD[edit]

According to Chinese Muslims' traditional legendary accounts, Islam was first introduced in China in 616-18 AD by Sahaba (companions) of Prophet Muhammad: Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, Sayid, Wahab ibn Abu Kabcha and another Sahaba.[5] Wahab ibn abu Kabcha (Wahb abi Kabcha) might be a son of al-Harth ibn Abdul Uzza (aknown as Abu Kabsha).[6] It is noted in other accounts that Wahab Abu Kabcha reached Canton by sea in 629 CE.[citation needed]

Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas, along with three Sahabas, namely Suhayla Abuarja, Uwais al-Qarani, and Hassan ibn Thabit, went to China from Arabia in 637 for the second time and returned by the Yunan-Manipur-Chittagong route, then reached Arabia by sea.[7] Some date the introduction of Islam in China to 650 AD which is the instance of the third sojourn of Saad ibn abi Waqqas to China,[8] Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas, was sent as an official envoy to Emperor Gaozong which was his third sojourn during Caliph Uthman's era in 651 AD.[9]

Tang Dynasty[edit]

Guang Ta minaret, Huaisheng Mosque, Guangzhou, China. According to tradition, the mosque was founded in 627. The minaret was built in the 10th century. Photograph by Felice Beato, April 1860.

Earlier visits of Saad ibn abi Waqqas were noted in Arab accounts since it was a period of nascent Islam mixed with events of many hectic preaching and warfare. They (Sahabas) were more concerned with writings of verses of the Koran as revealed to Muhammad, and his sayings (hadiths) and ways of life (sunnah). According to China Muslims' traditional legendary accounts, Islam was first brought to China by an embassy led by Saad ibn abi Waqqas that was sent by Uthman, the third Caliph, (that was in 651, less than twenty years after the death of Muhammad) which are confusions with Saad ibn abi Waqqas's earlier visits. The embassy was led by Saad ibn Abī Waqqās, the maternal uncle of Muhammad himself. Emperor Gaozong, the Tang emperor who received the envoy then ordered the construction of the Memorial mosque in Canton, the first mosque in the country, in memory of Muhammad.[8][10]

While modern secular historians tend to say that there is no evidence for Waqqās himself ever coming to China,[10] they do believe that Muslim diplomats and merchants came to Tang China within a few decades from the beginning of the Muslim Era.[10] The Tang Dynasty's cosmopolitan culture, with its intensive contacts with Central Asia and its significant communities of (originally non-Muslim) Central and Western Asian merchants resident in Chinese cities, which helped the introduction of Islam.[10] The first major Muslim settlements in China consisted of Arab and Persian merchants.[11] During the Tang and especially the Song eras, comparatively well-established, even if somewhat segregated, mercantile Muslim communities existed in the port cities of Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Hangzhou on China's southeastern seaboard, as well as in the interior centers such as Chang'an, Kaifeng, and Yangzhou.[12] After critical analysis, it is evident that Saad ibn abi Waqqas and the three other Sahabas who were preaching from 616-18 were noticed by Emperor Wu-De by 618 AD. Guangzhou is home to four mosques, including the famous Huaisheng Mosque believed to have been built by Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, the uncle of Muhammad. The city also has a grave believed to be that of ibn Abi Waqqas (father of Sa'd ibn abi Waqqas).[13]

Islam was brought to China during the Tang dynasty by Arab traders, who were primarily concerned with trading and commerce, and not concerned at all with spreading Islam. They did not try to convert Chinese at all and only did commerce. It was because of this low profile that the 845 anti-Buddhist edict during the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution said absolutely nothing about Islam.[14] It seems that trade occupied the attention of the early Muslim settlers rather than religious propagandism; that while they observed the tenets and practised the rites of their faith in China, they did not undertake any strenuous campaign against either Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, or the State creed, and that they constituted a floating rather than a fixed element of the population, coming and going between China and the West by the oversea or the overland routes.[15][16]

Song Dynasty[edit]

Puhaddin Mausoleum complex in Yangzhou

By the time of the Song Dynasty, Muslims had come to play a major role in the import/export industry.[8][12] The office of Director General of Shipping was consistently held by a Muslim during this period.[17] In 1070, the Song emperor Shenzong invited 5,300 Muslim men from Bukhara, to settle in China in order to create a buffer zone between the Chinese and the Liao empire in the northeast. Later on these men were settled between the Sung capital of Kaifeng and Yenching (modern day Beijing).[18] They were led by Prince Amir Sayyid "So-fei-er" (his Chinese name) who was reputed of being called the "father" of the Muslim community in China. Prior to him Islam was named by the Tang and Song Chinese as Dashi fa ("law of the Arabs").[19] He renamed it to Huihui Jiao ("the Religion of the Huihui").[20]

Tombs of Imam Asim and Mazaar of Zafar Sadiq[edit]

The tombs of Sa-Ke-Zu and Wu-Ko-Shun at Mount Lingshan, Quanzhou

"On the foothills of Mount Lingshan are the tombs of two of the four companions that Prophet Muhammad sent eastwards to preach Islam. Known as the "Holy Tombs," they house the companions Sa-Ke-Zu and Wu-Ko-Shun—their Chinese names, of course. The other two companions went to Guangzhou and Yangzhou."[21] "The Imam (Islamic Holy Man) Asim is said to have been one of the first Islamic missionaries in the region. His name is also spelled Imam Hashim (man of c.1000 CE in Hotan). The shrine site includes the reputed tomb of the Imam, a mosque, and several related tombs."[22] There is also a mazaar of Imam Zafar Sadiq.[23]

Yuan Dynasty[edit]

Main article: Islam during the Yuan Dynasty

During the Mongol-founded Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), large numbers of Muslims settled in China. The Mongols, a minority in China, gave foreign immigrants, such as Muslims, Christians, and Jews from west Asia an elevated status over the native Han Chinese as part of their governing strategy, thus giving Muslims a heavy influence. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims immigrants were recruited and forcibly relocated from Western and Central Asia by the Mongols to help them administer their rapidly expanding empire.[2] The Mongols used Persian, Arab and Buddhist Uyghur administrators, generically known as semu [色目]("various eye color")[24] to act as officers of taxation and finance. Muslims headed many corporations in China in the early Yuan period.[25][page needed] Muslim scholars were brought to work on calendar making and astronomy. The architect Yeheidie'erding (Amir al-Din) learned from Han architecture and helped to design the construction of the capital of the Yuan Dynasty, Dadu, otherwise known as Khanbaliq or Khanbaligh, the predecessor of present-day Beijing.[26] The term Hui originated from the Mandarin "Huihui," a term first used in the Yuan Dynasty to describe Central Asian, Persian and Arab residents in China.[10]

Jinan Great Southern Mosque was completed during the reign of Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan.

Genghis Khan, and the following Yuan Emperors forbade Islamic practicies like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.[28] Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher.[29] Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim Generals joined Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim Generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese which meant "baracks" and also mean "thanks", many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them.[30]

Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say “we do not eat Mongol food”. [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] “By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?” He thereupon made them eat. “If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime.” He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: “if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat”. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.

[31]

The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.

Ming Dynasty[edit]

Main article: The Hundred-word Eulogy

Statue of the famous Chinese Muslim Explorer and Admiral, Zheng He.

Hu Dahai was a Chinese Muslim general of the Hongwu Emperor.

Chang Yuchun is said to be the father of the famous "Kaiping spear method".[32][33]

Mu Ying general

During the following Ming Dynasty, Muslims continued to be influential around government circles. Six of Ming Dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang's most trusted generals are said to have been Muslim, including Lan Yu who, in 1388, led a strong imperial Ming army out of the Great Wall and won a decisive victory over the Mongols in Mongolia, effectively ending the Mongol dream to re-conquer China. Zhu Yuanzhang also wrote a praise of Islam, the The Hundred-word Eulogy. It was recorded that "His Majesty ordered to have mosques built in Xijing and Nanjing [the capital cities], and in southern Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong. His Majesty also personally wrote baizizan [a eulogy] in praise of the Prophet's virtues."[34] Additionally, the Yongle Emperor hired Zheng He, perhaps the most famous Chinese of Muslim birth although at least in later life not a Muslim himself, to lead seven expeditions to the Indian Ocean from 1405 and 1433. However, during the Ming Dynasty, new immigration to China from Muslim countries was restricted in an increasingly isolationist nation. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by speaking Chinese dialects and by adopting Chinese names and culture. Mosque architecture began to follow traditional Chinese architecture. This era, sometimes considered the Golden Age of Islam in China,[35] also saw Nanjing become an important center of Islamic study.[36]

The Ming policy towards the Islamic religion was tolerant, while their racial policy towards ethnic minorities was of integration through forced marriage. Muslims were allowed to practice Islam, but if they were members of other ethnic groups they were required by law to intermarry, so Hui had to marry Han since they were different ethnic groups, with the Han often converting to Islam.

Integration was mandated through intermarriage by Ming law, ethnic minorities had to marry people of other ethnic groups. The Chinese during the Ming dynasty also tried to force foreigners like the Hui into marrying Chinese women.[38] Marriage between upper class Han Chinese and Hui Muslims was low, since upper class Han Chinese men would both refuse to marry Muslim women, and forbid their daughters from marrying Muslim men, since they did not want to convert due to their upper class status. Only low and mean status Han Chinese men would convert if they wanted to marry a Hui woman. Ming law allowed Han Chinese men and women to not have to marry Hui, and only marry each other, while Hui men and women were required to marry a spouse not of their race.[39][40][41]

The Ming Emperor Hongwu decreed the building of multiple mosques throughout China in many locations. A Nanjing mosque was built by the Xuanzong Emperor.[42]

When the Qing dynasty invaded the Ming dynasty in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists led by Muslim leaders Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Ma Shouying led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor. The Muslim Ming loyalists were crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin and Ding Guodong killed.

Qing Dynasty[edit]

Painting depicting a Turkic Muslim from Altishahr, during the reign of the Qing dynasty.

The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) witnessed multiple revolts. The Qing rulers belonged to the Manchu, a minority in China.

When the Qing dynasty invaded the Ming dynasty in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin[44] and Ding Guodong led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor.[45] The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay.[46][47][48] The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt.[49] After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged alleigance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military.[50] When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing.[51] The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.

The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing.[52]

The Muslim revolt in the northwest occurred due to violent and bloody infighting between Muslim groups, the Gedimu, Khafiya, and Jahriyya. The rebellion in Yunnan occurred because of repression by Qing officials, resulting in five bloody Hui rebellions, most notably the Panthay Rebellion, which occurred in Yunnan province from 1855 to 1873, and the Dungan revolt, which occurred mostly in Xinjiang, Shensi and Gansu, from 1862 to 1877. The Manchu government ordered the execution of all rebels, killing a million people in the Panthay rebellion,[54][page needed] several million in the Dungan revolt[54]

The Hui Muslim population of Beijing was unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan revolt.[55]

Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the Henan area, with no ramifications or consequences from the Muslim rebellions of other areas. Allès wrote "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain."[56]

However, many Muslims like Ma Zhan'ao, Ma Anliang, Dong Fuxiang, Ma Qianling, and Ma Julung defected to the Qing dynasty side, and helped the Qing general Zuo Zongtang exterminate the Muslim rebels. These Muslim generals belonged to the Khafiya sect, and they helped Qing massacre Jahariyya rebels. General Zuo moved the Han around Hezhou out of the area and relocated them as a reward for the Muslims there helping Qing kill other Muslim rebels.

In 1895, another Dungan Revolt (1895) broke out, and loyalist Muslims like Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang, Ma Guoliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang suppressed and massacred the rebel Muslims led by Ma Dahan, Ma Yonglin, and Ma Wanfu. A Muslim army called the Kansu Braves led by General Dong Fuxiang fought for the Qing dynasty against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. They included well known generals like Ma Anliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang.

In Yunnan, the Qing armies exterminated only the Muslims who had rebelled and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising.[57]

Republic of China[edit]

An ethnic Hui family celebrating Eid ul-Fitr in Ningxia

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Sun Yat-sen, who established the Republic of China, immediately proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Man (Manchu), Meng (Mongol), Hui (Muslim),[n 1] Tsang (Tibetan), and Miao peoples.

During the rule of the Kuomintang party, the Kuomintang appointed the Muslim warlords of the family known as the Ma clique as the Military Governors of the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia. Bai Chongxi was a Muslim General and Defence Minister of China during this time.

During the Second Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese persecuted, killed, and raped Hui Muslims. Mosques were destroyed and in many provinces Hui were slaughtered by Japanese troops or bombed. During the Rape of Nanking the Mosques in Nanjing were flowing with dead bodies after the Japanese slaughters. Japanese smeared Hui Mosques with pork fat, forcing Hui girls to serve as sex slaves and destroyed the cemeteries of the Hui.[58] Many Hui fought in the war against Japan.

People's Republic of China[edit]

A Muslim kindergarten in Yangzhou

During the Cultural Revolution, mosques along with other religious buildings were often defaced, destroyed or closed and copies of the Quran were destroyed along with temples, churches, Buddhist and Daoist monasteries, and cemeteries by the Red Guards.[59][page needed] During that time, the government also constantly accused Muslims and other religious groups of holding "superstitious beliefs" and promoting "anti-socialist trends".[60] The government began to relax its policies towards Muslims in 1978. When comparing persecution, Chinese Muslims say that the Soviet Union was worse in regards to its treatment of Islam than China during the "ten black years" (of the Cultural Revolution).[61] Today, Islam is experiencing a modest revival and there are now[62] many mosques in China. There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nation-wide Islamic associations have been organized to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims.[63]

People[edit]

See also: Hui people, Uyghur people, Kazakhs, Dongxiang people, Kyrgyz people, Salar people, Tajiks of Xinjiang, Uzbeks, Bonans, Chinese Tatars and Tibetan Muslims

Ethnic groups[edit]

Muslim, Bonan children.

Muslims live in every region in China.[2] The highest concentrations are found in the northwest provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, and Ningxia, with significant populations also found throughout Yunnan province in southwest China and Henan province in central China.[2] Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominantly Muslim. The largest groups in descending order are Hui (9.8 million in year 2000 census, or 48% of the officially tabulated number of Muslims), Uyghur (8.4 million, 41%), Kazakh (1.25 million, 6.1%), Dongxiang (514,000, 2.5%), Kyrgyz (144,000), Uzbeks (125,000), Salar (105,000), Tajik (41,000), Bonan (17,000), and Tatar (5,000).[2] However, individual members of traditionally Muslim ethnic groups may profess other religions or none at all. Additionally, Tibetan Muslims are officially classified along with the Tibetan people. Muslims live predominantly in the areas that border Central Asia, Tibet and Mongolia, i.e. Xinjiang, Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai, which is known as the "Quran Belt".[64]

Number of Muslims in China[edit]

99 names of Allah, in Chinese Sini (script).

China is home to a large population of adherents of Islam. According to the CIA World Factbook, about 1–2% of the total population in China are Muslims.[65] The 2000 census counts imply that there may be up to 20 million Muslims in China.[66] A 2009 study done by the Pew Research Center, based on China's census, concluded there are 21,667,000 Muslims in China, accounting for 1.6% of the total population.[8][67] According to the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), there are more than 21 million Muslims in the country. According to SARA there are approximately 36,000 Islamic places of worship, more than 45,000 imams, and 10 Islamic schools in the country.[68] Within the next two decades from 2011, Pew projects a slowing down of Muslim population growth in China than in previous years, with Muslim women in China having a 1.7 fertility rate.[69] Many Hui Muslims voluntarily limit themselves to one child in China since their Imams preach to them about the benefits of population control, the amount of children Hui in different areas are allowed to have varies between one and three children.[70] Chinese family planning policy allows minorities including Muslims to have up to two children in urban areas, and three to four children in rural areas.

An early historical estimate of the Muslim population of the then Qing Empire belongs to the Christian missionary Marshall Broomhall. In his book, published in 1910, he produced estimates for each province, based on the reports of missionaries working there, who had counted mosques, talked to mullahs, etc. Broomhall admits the inadequacy of the data for Xinjiang, estimating the Muslim population of Xinjiang (i.e., virtually the entire population of the province at the time) in the range from 1,000,000 (based on the total population number of 1,200,000 in the contemporary Statesman's Yearbook) to 2,400,000 (2 million "Turki", 200,000 "Hasak", and 200,000 "Tungan", as per George Hunter). He uses the estimates of 2,000,000 to 3,500,000 for Gansu (which then also included today's Ningxia and parts of Qinghai), 500,000 to 1,000,000 for Zhili (i.e., Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei), 300,000 to 1,000,000 for Yunnan, and smaller numbers for other provinces, down to 1,000 in Fujian. For Mongolia (then, part of the Qing Empire) he takes an arbitrary range of 50,000 to 100,000.[71] Summing up, he arrives to the grand total of 4,727,000 to 9,821,000 Muslims throughout the Qing Empire of its last years, i.e. just over 1-2% of the entire country's estimated population of 426,045,305.[72][73][74]

Religious practices[edit]

Islamic education in China[edit]

Chinese Muslim students.

Over the last twenty years a wide range of Islamic educational opportunities have been developed to meet the needs of China's Muslim population. In addition to mosque schools, government Islamic colleges, and independent Islamic colleges, a growing number of students have gone overseas to continue their studies at international Islamic universities in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, and Malaysia.[2] Qīngzhēn (清真) is the Chinese term for certain Islamic institutions. Its literal meaning is "pure truth."

Muslim groups[edit]

Further information: Muslim groups in China

The vast majority of China's Muslims are Sunni Muslims. A notable feature of some Muslim communities in China is the presence of female imams.[75] Islamic scholar Ma Tong recorded that the 6,781,500 Hui in China predominately followed the Orthodox form of Islam (58.2% were Gedimu a non-Sufi mainstream tradition that opposed unorthodoxy and religious innovation) mainly adhering to the Hanafi Madh'hab. However a large minority of Hui are members of Sufi groups. According to Tong, 21% Yihewani, 10.9% Jahriyya, 7.2% Khuffiya, 1.4% Qadariyya, and 0.7% Kubrawiyya.[76] Shia Chinese Muslims are mostly Ismailis including Tajiks of the Tashkurgan and Sarikul areas of Xinjiang.

Chinese Muslims and the Hajj[edit]

It is known that Admiral Zheng He (1371–1435) and his Muslim crews had made the journey to Mecca and performed the Hajj during one of the former's voyages to the western ocean between 1401-1433.[77] Other Chinese Muslims may have made the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in the centuries followed; however, there is little information on this. The General Ma Lin (warlord), made a Hajj to Mecca.[78] General Ma Fuxiang along with Ma Linyi sponsored Imam Wang Jingzhai when he went on hajj to Mecca in 1921.[79]Yihewani Imam Hu Songshan went on Hajj in 1925.[80] Briefly during the Cultural Revolution, Chinese Muslims were not allowed to attend the Hajj, and only did so through Pakistan, but this policy was reversed in 1979. Chinese Muslims now attend the Hajj in large numbers, typically in organized groups, with a record 10,700 Chinese Muslim pilgrims from all over the country making the Hajj in 2007.[81]

Relations with non-Muslims[edit]

In their early history, Muslims residing in China had closer interactions with adherents of other various faiths. Muslims treated the works of Confucius with considerable respect, pointing out the harmony between the two doctrines[82] and ethical norms.[83] Muslims saw their numbers increase in the 17th century with a large number of Chinese Jews converting to Islam.[82] Muslim General Ma Bufang allowed polytheists to openly worship, and Christian missionaries to station themselves in Qinghai. General Ma and other high ranking Muslim generals even attended the Kokonuur Lake Ceremony where the God of the Lake was worshipped, and during the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung, all participants bowed to a portrait of Kuomintang party founder Dr. Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat Sen), and the God of the Lake was also bowed to, and offerings were given to him by the participants, which included the Muslims.[84] Ma Bufang invited Kazakh Muslims to attend the ceremony honoring the God.[85] Ma Bufang received audiences of Christian missionaries, who sometimes gave him the Gospel.[86] His son Ma Jiyuan received a silver cup from Christian missionaries.[87]

Before the early 20th century, some observers did not note any difference among Muslims and non-Muslims in the prevalence of foot binding of women in China.[88][89] However, in southern China, James Legge encountered a mosque which had a placard denouncing footbinding, saying it constituted violating the creation of God.[90]

Representative bodies[edit]

Islamic Association of China[edit]

Main article: Islamic Association of China

Islamic Association of China office in Beijing

The Islamic Association of China claims to represent Chinese Muslims nationwide. At its inaugural meeting on May 11, 1953, in Beijing, representatives from 10 nationalities of the People's Republic of China were in attendance.

China Islamic Association[edit]

In May 1953, the government set up the China Islamic Association, which was described as aiming to "help the spread of the Qur'an in China and oppose religious extremism". The association is to be run by 16 Islamic religious leaders who are charged with making "a correct and authoritative interpretation" of Islamic creed and canon.

It will compile and spread inspirational speeches and help imams improve themselves, and vet sermons made by clerics around the country. This latter function is probably the key job as far as the central government is concerned. It is worried that some clerics are using their sermons to spread sedition.

Some examples of the religious concessions granted to Muslims are:

Muslim communities are allowed separate cemeteries

Muslim couples may have their marriage consecrated by an Imam

Muslim workers are permitted holidays during major religious festivals

Chinese Muslims are also allowed to make the Hajj to Mecca, and more than 45,000 Chinese Muslims have done so in recent years.[91]

Culture and heritage[edit]

The Niujie Mosque in Beijing

Although contacts and previous conquests have occurred before, the Mongol conquest of the greater part of Eurasia in the 13th century permanently brought the extensive cultural traditions of China, central Asia and western Asia into a single empire, albeit one of separate khanates, for the first time in history. The intimate interaction that resulted is evident in the legacy of both traditions. In China, Islam influenced technology, sciences, philosophy and the arts. In terms of material culture, one finds decorative motifs from central Asian Islamic architecture and calligraphy and the marked halal impact on northern Chinese cuisine.

Taking the Mongol Eurasian empire as a point of departure, the ethnogenesis of the Hui, or Sinophone Muslims, can also be charted through the emergence of distinctly Chinese Muslim traditions in architecture, food, epigraphy and Islamic written culture. This multifaceted cultural heritage continues to the present day.[92]

Military[edit]

Muslims have often filled distinguished military positions, and many Muslims have joined the Chinese army.[93] Muslims served extensively in the Chinese military, as both officials and soldiers. It was said that the Muslim Dongxiang and Salar were given to "eating rations", a reference to military service.[94]

Islamic architecture in China[edit]

Main article: Chinese mosques

Id Kah Mosque

In Chinese, a mosque is called qīngzhēn sì (清真寺) or "pure truth temple." The Great Mosque of Xi'an (first established during the Tang era) and the Great Southern Mosque in Jinan, whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty, do not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, they follow traditional Chinese architecture. Mosques in western China incorporate more of the elements seen in mosques in other parts of the world. Western Chinese mosques were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas.[95]

An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur; this applies to everything from palaces to mosques. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow; to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself.

On the foothills of Mount Lingshan are the tombs of two of the four companions that Muhammad sent eastwards to preach Islam. Known as the "Holy Tombs," they house the companions Sa-Ke-Zu and Wu-Ko-Shun—their Chinese names, of course. The other two companions went to Guangzhou and Yangzhou.[96]

Chinese buildings may be built with bricks, but wooden structures are the most common; these are more capable of withstanding earthquakes, but are vulnerable to fire. The roof of a typical Chinese building is curved; there are strict classifications of gable types, comparable with the classical orders of European columns.

As in all regions the Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style. China is renowned for its beautiful mosques, which resemble temples. However, in western China the mosques resemble those of the middle east, with tall, slender minarets, curvy arches and dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese Hui have built their mosques, there is a combination of east and west. The mosques have flared Chinese-style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniature domes and minarets.[95] The first mosque was the Great Mosque of Xian, or the Xian Mosque, which was created in the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century.[97]

Halal food in China[edit]

A typical Muslim restaurant in Linxia City.

A halal meat store sign in Hankou, ca. 1934-1935.

Main article: Chinese Islamic cuisine

Halal food has a long history in China. The arrival of Arabian and Persian merchants during the Tang and Song dynasties seen the introduction of the Muslim diet. Chinese Muslim cuisine adheres strictly to the Islamic dietary rules with mutton and lamb being the predominant ingredient. The advantage of Muslim cuisine in China is that it has inherited the diverse cooking methods of Chinese cuisine for example, braising, roasting, steaming, stewing and many more. Due to China's multicultural background Muslim cuisine retains its own style and characteristics according to regions.[98]

Due to the large Muslim population in western China, many Chinese restaurants cater to Muslims or cater to the general public but are run by Muslims. In most major cities in China, there are small Islamic restaurants or food stalls typically run by migrants from Western China (e.g., Uyghurs), which offer inexpensive noodle soup. Lamb and mutton dishes are more commonly available than in other Chinese restaurants, due to the greater prevalence of these meats in the cuisine of western Chinese regions. Commercially prepared food can be certified Halal by approved agencies. [99] In Chinese, halal is called qīngzhēn cài (清真菜) or "pure truth food." Beef and lamb slaughtered according to Islamic rituals is also commonly available in public markets, especially in North China. Such meat is sold by Muslim butchers, who operate independent stalls next to non-Muslim butchers.

Islamic finance in China[edit]

China and Chinese Muslim economists have a long tradition with Islamic finance. The latest official attempt is Bank of Ningxia; while Hong Kong as financial center is discussing intensively its role.[100]

Calligraphy[edit]

Sini[edit]

Main article: Sini (script)

Sini is a Chinese Islamic calligraphic form for the Arabic script. It can refer to any type of Chinese Islamic calligraphy, but is commonly used to refer to one with thick and tapered effects, much like Chinese calligraphy. It is used extensively in mosques in eastern China, and to a lesser extent in Gansu, Ningxia, and Shaanxi. A famous Sini calligrapher is Hajji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang.

A Chinese-Arabic-Xiaoerjing dictionary from the early days of the People's Republic of China.

Xiao'erjing[edit]

Main article: Xiao'erjing

Xiao'erjing (also Xiao'erjin or Xiaojing) is the practice of writing Sinitic languages such as Mandarin (especially the Lanyin, Zhongyuan, and Northeastern dialects) or the Dungan language in the Arabic script. It is used on occasion by many ethnic minorities who adhere to the Islamic faith in China (mostly the Hui, but also the Dongxiang, and the Salar), and formerly by their Dungan descendants in Central Asia.

Martial arts[edit]

Main article: Muslim Chinese martial arts

There is a long history of Muslim development and participation at the highest level of Chinese wushu. Many of its roots lie in the Qing Dynasty persecution of Muslims. The Hui started and adapted many of the styles of wushu such as bajiquan, piguazhang, and liuhequan. There were specific areas that were known to be centers of Muslim wushu, such as Cang County in Hebei Province. These traditional Hui martial arts were very distinct from the Turkic styles practiced in Xinjiang.[101]

Literature[edit]

The Han Kitab was a collection of Chinese Islamic texts written by Chinese Muslim which synthesized Islam and Confucianism. It was written in the early 18th century during the Qing dynasty. Han is Chinese for Chinese, and kitab (ketabu in Chinese) is Arabic for book.[102] Liu Zhi wrote his Han Kitab in Nanjing in the early 18th century. The works of Wu Sunqie, Zhang Zhong, and Wang Daiyu were also included in the Han Kitab.[103]

The Han Kitab was widely read and approved of by later Chinese Muslims such as Ma Qixi, Ma Fuxiang, and Hu Songshan. They believed that Islam could be understood through Confucianism.

Education[edit]

A lot of Chinese students including male and females join International Islamic University, Islamabad to gain Islamic knowledge. For some Muslim groups in China, such as Hui and Salars minorities, coeducation is frowned upon; for some groups such as Uyghurs, it is not.[104]

Ethnic Conflict and Natural Resources

Xinjiang, China

ICE Research Team

I. Case Background

II. Environment Aspect

III. Conflict Aspect

IV. Env. - Conflict Overlap

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Ancient Ruins of Jiaohe City Xinjiang, China

I. CASE BACKGROUND

1. Abstract

The Muslim Uyghurs are an ethnic minority in Xinjiang, the most western province of China. Particularly since the Communist takeover of the region in 1949, the Uyghurs have experienced religious and cultural persecution by the Han Chinese. With the discovery of oil and other natural resources in the region, the Han Chinese are now flooding into the region in an effort to exploit the resources. This influx of people has intensified the already tenuous relationship between the Han Chinese and the Uyghurs over their religious, cultural and social differences. Furthermore, the influx of people has lead to not only the extraction of resources but the over-cultivation of land and over-use of precious water resources in the area. As a result, the Uyghurs have strengthened their own campaign, sometimes resorting to violence, in an effort to reclaim their land to halt the religious and political persecution and, in extremist cases, to establish their own, independent Uyghur state.

Street Market Urumqi, China

Muslim Mosque Urumqi, China

2. Description

Along with cultural and political repression, the fight for oil is contributing to the repression of economic progress in the region as well. In order to understand the importance or the magnitude of the struggle for resources, it is important to understand the political and cultural struggles that have come before. The environmental aspect of the struggle between the Uyghurs and the Han Chinese is not only a cause of recent conflict but is also a contributing factor in the ongoing conflict which has existed for many years. The conflict in Western China is also unique in that the environmental aspect, as said before, exists both in the natural resources at stake and in the strategic geographic location of the region. The growing importance of its geographical position (it is important to note) is related to the development of neighboring nations and economies within the region. The development of the Central Asian states and the sympathetic Uyghur populations located within those states may prove to be a problem for Chinese control as they may encourage or even assist in the drive for an independent Uyghur nation in the future.

Historical Relationship

Throughout various periods in history, the Uyghurs have experienced tastes of independence, the independent republic of East Turkistan, for a short time. However the Han insist that the same area was in fact settled by the Chinese over 2,000 years ago. As a result of the historical disparities, disagreements and hostilities over economic, political and cultural issues have plagued the region up through its modern history.

Though the ethnic origin of the Uyghurs has been traced to the Uyghur Empire in Northwestern Mongolia (744-840 C.E.) it is believed that the modern Uyghurs have only existed since the mid-1930s (when the Chinese government defined the modern Uyghurs as ‘oasis-dwelling Muslims of Xinjiang’s Tarim Basin). That from 1450-1935 the term ‘Uyghur’ essentially went ‘unused’ does not mean that the people disappeared. In 1931 the Chinese government attempted to manipulate the hereditary leadership in Xinjiang (oasis of Hami) and ethnic turmoil ensued. This violence was the beginning of the Uyghurs modern struggle for independence. They found themselves in opposition to the Han and the Tungans (Hui people) (as the Tungans, from a Uyghur standpoint, had allied with the Han though they were, in fact, Muslim). Until 1949, Xinjiang managed to remain relatively independent from central authorities in China (instead the Uyghurs were more influenced by the civilizations on China’s Western border, i.e. Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, etc.). (Rudelson, Oasis Identities)

Xinjiang builds ties with outside world, the Chinese becomes uneasy

As transportation and communication abilities increased, barriers to integration deteriorated. Furthermore, as the Soviet Union began to make agreements with warlords in Xinjiang to exploit the area’s natural resources, the Chinese government realized they needed to manipulate the geographical situation to favor their own interests. To take away trade routes from the Soviet Union, the city of Urumqi was made a transportation hub and the Han have been pouring into the region in search of agricultural and economic opportunities since. Ethnic friction has continued to intensify as more and more Han move into the region usurping Uyghur autonomy.

Oil exploration officially began in 1951 with the drilling of the first well in 1955. Coincidentally, the first major incident of resistance occurred in 1954, the Khotan rising in Southern Xinjiang. In 1962 a mass exodus of Kazakhs and others westward was the result of a rationing of resources (specifically the grain rationing system). Han Chinese immigration and competition resulted in scarcities of agricultural land, water and pastures. Uyghur opposition grew increasingly more overt and nationalistic throughout the 1980s as the repressive atmosphere of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1977) began to wither (Rudelson, Oasis Identities).

With the discovery of large reserves of strategic natural resources in the area, specifically oil and natural gas, tensions have grown increasingly complex and more violent. Not only do the natural resource demands represent another way for the Han Chinese to exploit the people of Xinjiang in order to support the further economic development of Eastern China, Xinjiang also holds much value as a border province, or a link with the relatively newly ‘opened’ Central Asian (formerly Russian) states. Xinjiang is expected to replace northeast China as the new supplier of energy resources, mainly oil and natural gas (and some coal, too). For example, in early 2005, construction began on an oil pipeline between Kazakhstan and Western China (Dillon)

Post-cultural revolution: ethnic conflict erupts as need for scarce natural resources intensifies

February, 1997: Yining/Ghulja, Xinjiang

Chinese security officials acted with force to suppress what had been a peaceful pro-independence demonstration in Yining (a small city about 30 miles from the China-Kazakhstan border). Uyghurs contend that the Han Chinese were simply looking to exploit Xinjiang’s natural resources. Two days of riots followed. Though reports differ, it is believed that at least nine people were killed and hundreds more were injured. One month after this outbreak of violence separatists responded by detonating bombs on two public buses in Urumqi.

By January, 2000 China had launched the “Go West” policy indicating that there is more at stake than merely increasing growth in Western China. Not only are there interests in Xinjiang for its natural resources but also, by extracting the natural resources from the area as an economic commodity, they (China) are in a sense taking away Uyghur livelihood and their (Uyghur) means to live. This results in two situations: first, the Uyghurs are left to flounder in a ‘backwards’ society, isolated from the rest of the world with no means to overcome the geographical and economic factors separating them. Secondly, as they are further marginalized, the Uyghurs naturally become increasingly discontent and perhaps leads to an increase in separatist/extremists mentalities.

3. Duration

Chinese Muslim Women Protest

Begin: Early 1950 (1955- Xinjiang was officially labeled an autonomous region of China.)

End: Present As China’s interest in developing strategic relationships with central Asian states continues (evidence in the development of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization: China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.) the region of Xinjiang will continue to be important both as a border region (for security measures) and as a viable source of energy.

Over the last half of the 20th century several violent incidents have occurred. In the late 1990s and particularly in the aftermath of September 11th, the boundaries of the ethnic conflict and natural resources have grown beyond Urumqi, Xinjiang and the violence has now spread to cities like Beijing where deadly bombings were carried out in late 1997 (Dillon, 100).

The Uyghur conflict has also spread internationally. For example, in October 2002, China’s Deputy Prime Minister claimed the U.S. government detained at least 12 Uyghurs at Guatanamo Bay for possible connections with terrorist networks. Though any terrorist connections have yet to be proven, if the Uyghurs are returned to China they will almost certainly face brutal interrogations and incarceration regardless. While the U.S. State Department has issued reports condemning China for its harsh treatment of accused separatists, they have also praised China on joining the West in the war on terrorism (Starr). The increasingly vocal Chinese dissidents or separatists (i.e. Uyghurs) may hurt China’s economic relationships as well. For example, Kazakhstan’s president has stated his opposition to any organization advocating separatism in China using Kazakh territory. China’s economic relationships, with neighboring nations, depends on China’s ability to reign in the ‘wild west of China’ and maintain control over the ‘violent separatists’.

courtesy of University of Texas Libraries

4. Location: East Asia: China

Western China: Xinjiang Province, and the Central Asian States: Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The actual conflict has occurred in (what is considered) China, although scuffles have broken out near or on the Western border mainly with Kazakhstan but also Kyrgystan and Tajikistan as well. Also, it is important to remember that in discussing the connection between Chinese economic interests and the war on terror, Afghanistan does share a small border with Western China.

5. Actors: Han Chinese, People's Republic of China, Ethnic Uyghur People

Actors

Sovereign Actors: Government of the People’s Republic of China, Han Chinese citizens

Non-Sovereign Actors: Uyghur people (of Turkic Muslim descent) While the Chinese claim the Uyghurs are part of China, the Uyghurs consider themselves a separate national identity.

II. Environment Aspects

6. Type of Environmental Problem: Resource Rights: Oil

Source Problem

Looking at direct causal linkages, the environmental conflict present alongside the ethnic conflict taking place in Xinjiang is a problem of source. The negative impacts of the repeated and invasive search for oil are only compounded by the fact that the benefits the area could potentially hope to see are lost as the oil is taken out of the region and devoted to development of eastern China. What makes the sacrifice of ethnic culture, language and political autonomy in the pursuit of economic development seem perhaps more in vain is the fact that China, with 9% economic growth yearly and the world’s second largest consumer of oil, China has also continued to develop oil projects outside its national borders in order to satisfy a need which may increase by as much as 7% this year over last(1). When 40% of China’s oil comes from imports and China is making deals to develop oil fields in Iran, why has the region of Xinjiang been so exploited when, according to some analysts, the actual amount of oil in the area is far less than originally claimed, and far less than could be found else where?

According to the list of potential source problems, this case study could be placed under habitat loss for the simple reason that the extracting of oil is compromising or even destroying the Uyghurs’ livelihood and essentially their living conditions. Beyond that, however, if given the choice, I would categorize this study simple as ‘oil’. That simple term encompasses not only the desire for oil but also the side effects that come with it. In China, economic growth is at the forefront of most policy decisions and as such, the search for oil, a driving force behind economic growth, is placed above environmental concerns or implementation of environmental protections. The oil that is exploited from the region serves to fuel environmental degradation in other, more developed, parts of China.

(1)China-Iran Energy Talks Complicate Nuclear Standoff. The Wall Street Journal. February 17, 2006.

7. Type of Habitat: Dry

Dry, Cool (Winter) Hot (Summer) Desolate peaks vs. Arable Land

Xinjiang is a remote province and sparsely populated. It is made up of vast deserts which contribute to a climate of very cold winters and very hot summers. It’s an area of low humidity with more consistent patterns of rain as opposed to a concentrated rainy season.

Xinjiang accounts for more than one sixth of China’s total territory and a quarter of its boundary length. The provinces lowest point is 155 meters below sea level and it’s highest is 8611 meters above sea level. More importantly, the borders of Xinjiang include the point of land remotest from the sea which is 1,645 miles from the nearest coastline. Several of its borders are marked by mountain ranges contributing to the relative seclusion of the region, making it rather difficult to access by land. Because of its geography and climate, Xinjiang is well suited for producing fruits especially grapes and melons, and other commodities such as wheat, silk and cotton. However, none of these products has the power or value of the natural minerals and oil present in the region. According to China’s estimates, Petroleum reserves have reached 20.9 billion tons (30% of the petroleum on land in China)(CIA World Factbook)

8. Act and Harm Sites: China and China (Xinjiang)

Nation A impacts Nation A

The Act and Harm sites are primarily the same: China. However, there have been a few exceptions as to the locations in China. In early 1997, following the uprising in Yining (i.e. Gulja) in Xinjiang province (as mentioned above) there have been several bombs detonated on buses in Beijing, reportedly an act carried out by Uyghur Muslim separatists. (Though authorities originally denied the act as that of ethnic separatists, their actions proved otherwise, they began to carry out such orders as restricting religious worship activities (MacKinnon).) Perhaps this indicates the potential for the conflict to reach beyond internal (provincial) borders and maybe even international borders if Xinjiang were to further engage activists and/or separatist extremists in Central Asian territories.

Chinese Population Distribution According to Linguistic Groups

courtesy of The General Libraries at University of Texas Austin

Ads by OffersWizard×Uyghurs make up 8 million of Xinjiang’s 17 million inhabitants. In 1949, Han Chinese made up 6.3% of Xinjiang’s population compared to 38% today (See map on Chinese language disbursement: In Xinjiang, the bright yellow represents Mandarin speakers (Han Chinese) and the tan represents speakers of Turkic languages (including Uyghur) (Lawrence). Not only has the composition of the population in Xinjiang changed but the quantity has changed as well. The oil reserves have produced an influx of people moving to the region for the wrong reasons. Many Han Chinese, who otherwise would not have gone (or subjected themselves to such an extreme climate) have either volunteered or were sent specifically to exploit the area’s natural resources. Not only does this deplete the resources themselves, it adds excessive pressure and strain on the local economy and the natural resources available for day to day living. (i.e. sacrificing agricultural land for urban development.) Therefore, to expound upon how this case was categorized earlier, it is not just the extraction of oil that is important but the unnecessary, extreme depletion of available resources and a loss of habitat (CIA World Factbook).

III. Conflict Aspects

9. Type of Conflict: Civil conflict

The conflict exists between two ethnic groups within Chinese borders.

As with most conflicts that happen internally in China, there is a great degree of conflicting information. Additionally, it is important to clarify that though the single incident in Yining (Gulja) has been highlighted, the overarching conflict between the ethnic Uyghurs and the Han Chinese spans many incidents of resistance and far more casualties.

The conflict originated over the Uyghur people's desire for political and religious independence from the Han Chinese. With this desire for independence, came the struggle for natural resources and local economic sustainability. The exploitation of local oil reserves exacerbated ethnic differences and helped fuel the conflict.

Specifically in regards to what happened in Yining in February of 1997, the numbers of casualties and deaths are estimates at best. Most reports (including Chinese officials’ numbers) range anywhere from nine to twenty dead and hundreds injured. Unofficial witness accounts have claimed anywhere from 30 to 100 to 400 were injured or killed (1). Other sources simply state that hundreds joined the demonstrations that day and when fighting broke out a ‘number of civilians and police officers were killed’. According to still other reports, prior estimates failed to take into account the number of those arrested and subsequently tortured in custody, or those who remain unaccounted for (Tyler, 167-172)(2). Following the incident, and as a direct result of it, Amnesty International asserts that 210 death sentences were subsequently handed down and at least 190 carried out.

(1) Some have given accounts that stated 10-20 separatists were secretly executed fueling the uprising giving rise to incalculable numbers of death and injuries (Oasis Identities, 100)

(2)There were wide reports of torture by subjecting the prisoners to freezing temperatures in public gathering places where many suffered frostbite, amputated limbs or even death. (Amnesty International)

10. Level of Conflict: Low

The level of the intrastate (civil) conflict is low. The small, localized, struggles were quickly and forcefully contained and put down by local Chinese enforcement.

(Prior incidents reporting few casualties: Khotan rising, Dec. 1954; Baren county, April 1990; Yining (first disturbances) April 1995; Aksu county, Feb-April 1996.)

11. Fatality Level of Dispute (military and civilian fatalities): Low, 30 civilian fatalities (reported).

General Estimate: 30 people killed, at least 100 severely injured

IV. Environment and Conflict Overlap

12. Environment-Conflict Link and Dynamics: Direct/Indirect

The core of the environmental conflict ultimately rests over China’s (or the Chinese government’s) access to oil in the Xinjiang region (the Direct environmental-conflict link). However, a second tier exists within the conflict over the ‘side-effects’ that the Uyghur population is now having to deal with as a result, not only with the decline in oil resources, but also the environmental degradation that has accompanied the influx of the population.

Xinjiang is known for its agricultural land and appropriate climate for producing fruits, especially grapes, and other seasonal products. However, development (land development) has threatened the availability and richness of the land, somewhat paralyzing the region economically as they are unable to adequately compensate for lost sources of revenue. This growing scarcity of resources is an indirect environment-conflict link.

13. Level of Strategic Interest: Sub-state (with the potential to become Regional)

The situation is ‘Sub-state’ in that the conflict over the strategic interests of oil are between two ethnic groups within China. Both the Chinese (Han) and Uyghur populations ultimately want control over the exploration and exploitation of the oil reserves located in Xinjiang. This same situation could also be viewed as a potential regional conflict because the surrounding Central Asian states not only may develop an interest in the oil (though oil suppliers are plentiful in the Middle East, Xinjiang, China does represent a geographically convenient location for importing oil to many of those countries and some have made agreements to allow China to come in and develope oil drilling sites for export back to China (ex: Kazakhstan)) parts of the populations in those Asian states such as Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazahkstan have Uyghur populations as well and so there is a personal/ethnic tie or desire in seeing or supporting the development of an autonomous Uyghur state.

14. Outcome of Dispute: Stalemate

Winter in Urumqi

Given that the outcome of the dispute is highly dependent upon one’s position within the conflict, this situation is even more complicated in that the description or categorization of this problem depends upon who you ask within the decision-making body (The Chinese government in this case) Some Chinese officials will say the situation in Xinjiang is under control or they will deny the severity (or existence) of the problem to begin with. However, other members within the party will hint at the greater complexity of the problem. They will acknowledge that ethnic clashes still continue and may even intensify due to the increasing importance of oil in the region and increasing awareness of the conflict both within China and internationally.

The conflict has been categorized as a stalemate because though China insists it has controlled the situation, Uyghurs in the region would say the government has managed to suppress the disturbances but only temporarily and that in fact the underlying problems are still very real and very deep.

The imposition of Chinese rule over the largely Muslim region continues to this day in all aspects of life for the Uyghur people. For example, just recently the government announced a plan to impose tougher birth control measures on the Uyghurs which Chinese officials claim will stem the population size which they say is beginning to cancel out the improvements attained through economic development (though most of the population in Xinjiang today is Han Chinese). However, the Uyghur people see this as just another example of excessive Chinese authority in the region which, in the past has led to vast human rights violations(1).

This conflict in Western China is also quickly gaining worldwide attention as several Uyghurs who have been detained at the U.S. Guantanamo Bay prison for being possible enemy combatants in 2002 are petitioning to be released. The courts have ruled that the prisoners were detained illegally but the courts lack the power to release them (unable to overrule the President). More specifically related to the conflict at hand, the Uyghurs are seeking release and asylum in the US as they have stated that they will likely be persecuted if/when they return to China (2).

These recent cases are evidence that the ethnic conflict between the Chinese government and the Uyghur population in Xinjiang is still very much alive. The environmental aspects of economic development continue to play an important role not only directly (as pertaining to oil resources) but also indirectly as population management becomes a more critical issue.

(1) Bodeen, Christopher. More Birth Control Sought in China Region. The Washington Post online. February 17, 2006.

(2) Leonnig, Carol D. Chinese Detainees’ Lawyers Will Take Case to High Court. The Washington Post. January 17, 2006.

This He Total number of Muslims in the State

ilustrasiilustrasiNegara-state with the highest number of Muslims in the world:

1 Indonesia: 220 million Muslims (87% of Population)

2 Pakistan: 180 million Muslims (97% of population)

3 India: 175 million Muslims (14.5% of the population)

4 Bangladesh: 140 million Muslims (90% of population)

5. Nigeria: 82 million Muslims (48% of population)

6 Egypt: 80 million Muslims (94% of population)

7 Turkey: 74 million Muslims (99% of population)

8. Algeria: 37 million Muslims (98% of population)

9. Morocco: 33 million Muslims (99% of population)

10 Afghanistan: 30 million Muslims (99% of population)

11. Sudan: 29 million Muslims (95% of population)

12. Ethiopia: 28 million Muslims (34% of population)

13. Saudi Arabia: 26 million Muslims (97% of population)

14. China: 26 million Muslims (2% population)

15. Uzbekistan: 26 million Muslims (96% of population)

16. Yemen: 22 million Muslims (99% of population)

17. Syria: 20 million Muslims (90% of population)

18th Malaysia: 20 million Muslims (65% of population)

19. Russia: 20 million Muslims (14% of population)

The countries with a Muslim majority population in Europe:

1. Albania: 2.5 million Muslims (80% of the population)

2 Kosovo: 2 million Muslims (90% of population)

The number of Muslims in some European countries:

1, Bosnia: 1.5 million Muslims (40% of population)

2 Macedonia: 0.7 million Muslims (34% of population)

3 UK: 2.5 million Muslims (4% of the population)

4 France: 4.5 million Muslims (7% of population)

5. Germany: 3 million Muslims (4% of the population)

6 Italy: 1 million Muslims (2% population)

7 Spain: 1 million Muslims (2% population)

8 Netherlands: Muslim 900,000 (6% of the population)

Iranian state population of about 75 million, is not known exactly what percentage of the Shia and the Sunni, but approximately: 64 million adherents of Shia (85%), 11 million Sunni Muslims (15%), 200,000 Christians, Jews, Baha'is , Zoroaster, and others.

Iraqi state population of about 32 million, approximately: 20 million followers of the Shia (65%) and 12 million Sunni Muslims (35%).

Muslims in China is not known for certain amount, there is a saying 2% (26 million), there is a saying the figure was about 5% (65 million Muslims). Because Islam was suppressed for decades so maybe many who keep his Islam, and many who change their religion.

If only the government is not communist china slaughter and exterminate Muslims probably should at this time Muslims could amount to 200 million in china (15% of the population), because some sources say 1940 the number of Muslims china has about 50 million (before the communists came to power). Even official Chinese emperor envoy to Indonesia 1400s Moslem, Admiral Ceng Ho namely (Zeng He).

Statistics above is only a general overview / global. Because among the people who ID cards themselves Muslims or Islam could be some of which are Shiite, liberal, secular, Islam KTP, abangan, no prayer, there may also be distinguished idolaters, heretic, hypocrite, adherents of religious pluralism, wihdatul form, ingkarus sunnah , and followers of other heretical sects. But in general the number of Muslims is very much, and the inhabitants of heaven so much as mentioned in the prophetic narrations.

The number one factor is the amount of glory. However, if the number of the Muslims little, and even then not reduce glory. Umat2 ancient prophets are few in number, such as Noah's people were just a handful of people.

And most people will not believe, even if you want it "[Surah Yusuf: 103]

And if you obey most of those on earth, they would misguide you from the way of Allah "[Surah Al-An'am: 116]

Prophet sallallaahu 'alaihi wasallam said:

"Islam emerged in a foreign state, and he will be back in a foreign state, the lucky ones who alienated it." (HR. Muslims no. 208)

"Indeed, this affair (Islam) will actually bring the areas that can be reached day and night (ie the whole earth)." (HR. Ahmad, classed as saheeh by al-Albani) (Continoe)

Indonesia in Focus

Tuesday, September 9, 2014

Unfinished journey (54)

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